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THE 


/ 

«*o4» *' OTr 

GUIDE TO KNOWLEDGE: ' 


BEING A 


COLLECTION OF USEFUL AND FAMILIAR 


QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS ON EVERY-DAY 

SUBJECTS, 


for Young persons, 

AND 

i • 

ARRANGED IN THE MOST SIMPLE AND EASY LANGUAGE. 



AUTHOR OF POPULAR LESSONS, ETC. 


4 


NEW YORK: 

D. APPLETON & COMPANY, 200 BROADWAY. 



CtfttTi.. 




, 1 ?K 1 


< •»; 

■I y / 


Entered according to Act of Congress, in'the year 1852, 

By D. APPLETON & COMPANY, 

In the Clerk’s Office of the District Court for the Southern District of 


New York. 


* # * ** .1 *'J 

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* .i 4 % * \ 

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■ * 


PREFACE. 


“ The Child’s Guide to Knowledge” is an elemen¬ 
tary book which has been much used in England for 
many years; but, beyond its general scope and details, 
nationality is a leading feature in the original work. 
Matters of fact purely local may be useful to be known 
in that country, which are of no importance whatever in 
this; while whatever is peculiar to this continent, or to 
these States, in the economy of nature, or the results of 
industry, is entirely disregarded in England as subject 
of instruction to the young. 

A book of the character of this should give all the 
information its bulk admits of concerning the produc¬ 
tions and arts of the country we inhabit. 

“ That which before us 
Lies in daily life is the prime wisdom.” 

I have therefore endeavored to fit a very useful design 
to the position and wants of the children of the United 
States, adding to matter of general concern such notices 
of our natural productions, and their uses, as may be 
serviceable in popular education, and to the end of life. 
A right Initiation is the true access to valuable ultimate 
acquirements. 

I recommend this book to teachers for its manifest 
utility. In the German schools, a little compend of 
cyclopedic design is always used. Such a book, well 
written, indicates sciences else never heard of by multi- 



4 


PREFACE. 


tildes of children, assists their observation, and furnishes 
to them a vocabulary they are not likely to acquire with¬ 
out it. I would commend to teachers to postpone the 
endless compends of Geography and Grammar till some¬ 
thing of the external world, and of the labors of man¬ 
kind, has been taught to their pupils. All that meets 
our senses belongs to the world we live in, and has rela¬ 
tions of some sort to those who dwell in it—therefore, 
geography is inseparable from every substance and every 
law of the material universe; divided from these, it is a 
dead letter. Geography having been taught in its first 
definitions, should be constantly referred to in the use 
of this Guide to Knowledge. 

The proper questions to a child are not, Where does 
cinnamon grow? or, Where is Australian gold found? 
—expecting an answer solely derived from maps; but, 
Where, on the earth we inhabit—where, in relation to 
the spot on which we are—is the island of Ceylon ? the 
continent of New Holland ? or any other point on the 
earth’s surface. The pupil so inquired of must stand 
with his face to the north, and must know the points of 
the compass. Then his map will tell him which way he 
would go for the whale of the Arctic Ocean, or to the 
Spice islands, the land of tea, or to that of the mahogany- 
tree ; he will point to the place in question, and tell what 
land or water intervenes. Any other mode of teaching 
geography teaches words only, and no geography, nor 
any matter of fact, in reality. 

The geographical use of this book is more than half 
its use. I hope every learner who may study it will be 
required to indicate every place mentioned in it, after the 
intimation just given. He or she will then practise 
beforehand, with the aid of school maps, the exercise 
demanded by the lesson to be recited. 


PREFACE. 


5 


I have made no use of italics in these lessons—I have 
never found them significant to children; therefore, after 
the example of Mr. Carlyle, I have employed capital let¬ 
ters in all words of peculiar sense, in order to distin¬ 
guish such words from the rest of the text. 

Every article of this compend has been referred to 
high authority—to the Penny Cyclopedia; to that excel¬ 
lent book, Mr. Edward Youman’s Elements of Chemis¬ 
try ; to Mr. Emerson’s work on Trees; and to Mrs. 
Loudon’s Naturalist. These works are presumed to 
afford the latest and the most accurate information on 
the multifarious subjects which the book treats of. So 
much care and labor can only be compensated by know¬ 
ing or believing that it must render important aid to the 
cause of general knowledge, and also to sound morality; 
that it may become a portion of the foundations of that 
noble edifice which every reader of good books may 
build up for the palace of his mind. 


New York, August, 1852. 


ELIZA ROBBINS. 


. 



» 


EXPLANATION OF SOME TERMS 

USED IN THE GUIDE TO KNOWLEDGE. 


Amphibious, capable of living 
both on land and in water. 

Infusoria, | m i crosc0 p e> 

Annulated, marked with rings. 

Antennae, an insect’s horns or 
feelers. 

Bivalve, having two shells. 

Callosity, a hard lump upon 
flesh, or on a joint, without 
feeling. 

Canine, of the dog kind. 

Carnivorous, eating flesh. 

Cetaceous, or the whale kind. 

Columbine, of the dove or 
pigeon kind. 

Digits, fingers and toes. 

Digitated, having the feet di¬ 
vided into toes and claws. 

Dorsal, belonging to the back. 

Entomology, natural history of 
insects. 

Feline, of the cat kind. 

Gallinaceous, belonging to the 
hen kind. 

Granivorous, feeding on grain. 

Gregarious, living in flocks. 

Herbivorous, feeding on herbs. 

Hoof, the horny covering of a 
horse’s foot. 

Ichthyology, natural history of 
fishes. 

Incubation, sitting on eggs and 
hatching them. 


Larva, the young of insects. 

Lateral, belonging to the side. 

Mandibles, the two pieces of a 
bird’s bill. 

Migratory, coming and going 
at certain seasons. 

Multivalve, with many shells 
or openings. 

Olfactory, relating to smells. 

Ornithology, a description of 
birds. 

Oviparous, laying eggs. 

Pectoral, belonging to the 
breast. 

Pendulous, hanging down. 

Predaceous, formed to pursue 
prey. 

Prey, something violently 
seized. 

Proboscis, the flexible trunk of 
an elephant. 

Quadruped, four-footed. 

Reptiles, lizards, toads, and 
snakes. 

Rummating, chewing the cud. 

Spiral, winding like a screw. 

Testaceous, covered with a shell, 
as oysters. 

Tentacula,XhQ feelers of worms. 

Umbrageous : affording shade. 

Univalve, with one shell. 

Zoology, history of animal life. 

Zoologist, one acquainted with 
zoology. 




EXPLANATION OF TERMS 


USED IN AKCHITECTUKE. 


Alcove, a recess. 

Altar, a pile of stones, or any 
frame, on which offerings 
made in worship are laid. 

Amphitheatre, a circular build¬ 
ing, to exhibit shows in. 

Aperture , a small space left 
open. 

Aqueduct, a channel to convey 
water from one place to 
another. 

Architect, one who designs and 
superintends the erection of 
buildings. 

Architecture, the art of building 
houses, bridges, and ships. 

Area, an inclosed space be¬ 
tween walls; a floor is an area. 

Arena, the middle space of the 
amphitheatre. 

Artisan, a mechanic, not an 
artist. 

Balcony, an open gallery, pro¬ 
jecting beyond the wall of a 
building. 

Baluster, the little pillar of a 
staircase. 

Balustrade, an inclosure form¬ 
ed of balusters. 

Base or basis, a foundation. 

Bay-window, a projecting win¬ 
dow. 

Belfry, that part of a steeple 
in which bells are hung. 


Capital, the head of a column. 

Castle, a large stone building, 
with towers and battlements. 

Castellated , built like a castle. 

Cathedral, a magnificent 
church, either Catholic or 
Episcopal. 

Ceiling, the uppermost in¬ 
closure of a room or a 
church. 

Cemetery, a place of interment 
for the dead. 

Choir, a compartment of any 
building set apart for singers. 

Circus, a round building for 
exhibition of spectacles. 

Colonnade, a row of columns. 

Column, a round pillar of wood 
or stone; its parts are the 
base, the shaft, and the capi¬ 
tal. 

Concave, hollowed like the in¬ 
side of a bowl. 

Convex, the outside form of a 
bowl. 

Conservatory , house for recep¬ 
tion of plants. 

Cornice, ornamented work be¬ 
tween the walls and ceiling 
of rooms. 

Cottage, a small house. 

Court, open space before a 
house, inclosed in walls. 

Crypt, a sort of cellar under a 
church. 




EXPLANATION OF TEEMS. 


9 


Cubit, one foot and a half.' 

Cupola, a dome or round build¬ 
ing on the top of a house. 

Design, a plan or drawing of 
something intended to be 
made. 

Drawbridge, a bridge made to 
be lifted and let down. 

Eaves, the overhanging edges 
of a roof. 

Edifice, any building erected 
by men. 

Fabric, also a building. 

Facade, the front or face of a 
building. 

Fluting, cavities cut in the 
whole length of a column. 

Foot, measure of twelve inches. 

Foundation, the lowest part of 
any building; that placed on 
the ground. 

Fountain, any edifice larger or 
smaller, out of which water 
is made to flow. 

Gaol or jail, place of imprison¬ 
ment. 

Hall, a room at the entrance of 
a house, or a large house en¬ 
tire. [alone. 

Hermit, a man who lives quite 

Hermitage, the dwelling of a 
hermit. 

Hospital, house for reception 
of sick persons. 

Hotel, a large house, or inn, for 
reception of travellers. 

Hut, the poorest human habi¬ 
tation. 

Infirmary, house for diseased 
persons. 

Intercolurrmiation, space be¬ 
tween columns. 


Lattice, a window slightly 
barred. 

Lazaretto, a hospital in Italy. 

Level, a flat surface lying hori¬ 
zontally like a floor. 

Library, a room or house to 
contain books. 

Loophole, a narrow opening to 
look out of. 

Mansion, a large house. 

Mausoleum, a splendid tomb. 

MenageHe, a building for re¬ 
ception of rare animals. 

Minaret, the slender spire of a 
mosque. 

Mosque, a Mohammedan 
church. 

Mural, belonging to a wall. 

Museum, house or room for re¬ 
ception of curious objects. 

Nave, the middle part of a 
church. 

Niche, hollow made in a wall 
for reception of a bust or 
statue. 

Observatory, a building for ob 
servation of the moon and 
stars. 

Palace, splendid house, in¬ 
tended forkings, princes, or 
bishops, in Europe. 

Palisades, pales or stakes set* 
up for an inclosure. 

Pedestal, the support of a col¬ 
umn or a statue. 

Penitentiary, house of impris¬ 
onment. 

Pilaster, a square column set 
against a wall. 

Piles, strong posts driven into 
earth to support some build- 
ing. 

Pinnacle, the top of a roof or 
of a spire. 



10 


EXPLANATION OF TERMS. 


Plank, sawn timber less than 
four inches thick, and thick¬ 
er than a hoard, which is one 
inch and a half thick. 

Portal , a great gate or entrance 
door. 

Portcullis , a grate at the top of 
an archway over gates, which 
may be let down or lifted 
like a window-sash. 

j Postern-gate, small gate in the 
rear of a castle. 

Pyramid , a building without 
windows, large at the base, 
four-sided, and rising to a 
point called the vertex. 

Rafters, inside beams of a ceil¬ 
ing or roof. 

Refectory , an eating-room. 

Rotunda, a building round 
within and without, and 
covered at the top. 

Rustic, building with rough 
stones, or unbarked wood. 

Saloon, an elegant room for re¬ 
ception of visitors. 

Sarcophagus, a coffin or chest 
for the dead, made of one 
stone. 


Sash, the frame which holds 
the glass of windows. 

Shingles, slips of thin boards 
used for covering to 
roofs. 

Spire, a steeple ending in a 
point. 

Steeple, part of a church, com¬ 
monly formed of a belfry and 
spire. 

Tabernacle, a large tent for re¬ 
ligious worship. 

Temple, an edifice designed for 
worship. 

Terra cotta, baked earth. 

Transept, a passage across a 
church. 

Vane , a piece of metal, which 
turns as the wind blows. 

Vestibule, entrance from the 
house door into the hall, or 
into a church. 

Villa, an elegant country 
house. 

Village , a collection of inhabit¬ 
ed houses. 

Vomitory, opening out of which 

S le can come forth from a 
io building. 



THE 


CHILD’S GUIDE TO KNOWLEDGE. 



Globe of the Earth. 


What is this world ? 

It is the earth we inhabit. 

Who made it ? 

God, the Creator of all things. 

Where do you find an account of the Creation? 

In the Bible, in the book of Genesis. 

Who wrote that book ? 

Moses, the Hebrew lawgiver, wrote it, fif- 



















12 child’s guide to knowledge. 

teen centuries before the birth of Christ; more 
than thirty-three hundred years ago. 

Does the first chapter of Genesis mention any thing besides 
the Earth ? 

It describes the creation of Light, the waters 
above and below the Firmament, the herbs 
and trees that grow out of the earth, the Sun, 
Moon, and Stars, the animals of all species, and 
the first man and woman. 

What are all these called? 

All the works of God together are the Uni¬ 
verse. 

What is the Firmament, and what are the waters above 
and below it ? 

The Firmament is the sky, “the waters 
above” are the clouds over our heads, and the 
“ waters under the heaven” are seas, rivers, 
brooks, and springs. 

From what does the earth and every thing upon it receive 
light ? 

From the sun, moon, and stars. 

Does the earth stand still ? 

No, it turns or Revolves around the sun in 
three hundred and sixty-five days and six 
hours. 

Does any thing support or keep up the earth as it revolves ? 

Like a soap-bubble blown into the air, it 
floats in space, and never falls; always, year 


child’s guide to knowledge. 13 

after year, it moves in the same path, called 
the Earth’s Orbit. 

Does the earth turn every side to the sun ? 

Yes; in twenty-four hours it turns quite 
round, which makes both Night and Day to 
us who live on it. 

How is that? 

If I turn one side of an apple towards a 
lamp, when lighted, that side of the apple will 
be in the light while the other side is dark; 
and when I turn the side which was first in 
the light from the light, then the side which 
was darkened will be in the light, while the 
other side is darkened. So is the Earth turned 
towards and from the Sun. 

What do men and animals do in the night-time ? 

They sleep, because they need rest and re¬ 
freshment ; but in the day, men can see to 
employ themselves, and animals can feed, or 
sport, or toil for men; then they are awake, 
and know what is around them. 

Do all animals sleep during the night ? 

Not all; some birds and insects, and some 
wild beasts, are awake at night, and seek their 
food at that time. Some of these are Preda¬ 
ceous, or prey-taking animals; they are also 
called the Nocturnal animals. 

2 


14 


child’s guide to knowledge. 


Do any large bodies besides tbe eartb move round the sun 1 

Several large bodies, called the Planets, 
move round the sun. Some of these are 
nearer to the sun, and others more distant 
from him, than the earth. 

What science describes the heavenly bodies, as these are 
called? 

The planets and the stars are described by 
Astronomy. 


Who were the first man and woman, and whose parents 
were they ? 

The first male and female were Adam and 
Eve: they were the parents of all Mankind, 
of all men and women in the world. All 
men, women, and children are the Human 
Race. 

Are the human race quite alike in all parts of the world ? 

All men and women have not the same 
complexion and features; there are what are 
called different races of men. 

Can you name them ? 

First, the white or Caucasian race, which 
we belong to; second, the Mongolian, that 
live in Middle Asia and in some of the islands 
of the Pacific Ocean; third, the Negro race, 
of Africa; fourth, the North American In- 



child’s guide to knowledge. 


15 


dian; fifth, the Malays, who live in Malacca 
and in the neighboring islands. These are 
the varieties of the human race. 

How do they all exist ? 

By the air they breathe, the food they eat, 
and by the shelter and clothing they make for 
themselves. 

What do we breathe ? 

Air. The whole globe is surrounded with 
ah’, as the wick of a lighted candle is sur¬ 
rounded with flame. This air is called the 
Atmosphere. If it be shut out of any place 
where we are, we must die. 

With what organs do we breathe ? 

With the lungs, which are within us; 
through the mouth, nose, and throat. Some 
diseases of the throat and lungs cause death. 
Some air is wholesome, and some is unwhole¬ 
some. 

What air is wholesome or healthy? 

Air which passes over clean places. Un¬ 
wholesome air is that which has come over 
foul or wet places—places which exhale bad 
odors. 

What is breathing ? 

Respiration. We Inhale air when we take 
it in, we Exhale it when we throw it out of 
the lungs. 


16 


child’s guide to knowledge. 


Can we see air ? 

No, but we can feel it. When the air moves 
rapidly, we call it Wind. 

What food does man subsist on ? 

On meat, fish, bread, fruits, garden vege¬ 
tables, milk, butter, cheese, and eggs. 

What is meat? 

The flesh of animals that have been killed. 
The flesh of the ox and cow is beef; of the 
sheep, mutton ; of the deer, venison; of swine, 
pork. 

What are domestic animals ? 

Those kept about the house, either to per¬ 
form labor, or to produce food. Wild animals 
take care of themselves, in the woods and 

fields. 

Do men eat the flesh of wild animals ? 

They eat the flesh of the deer, the bear, the 
buffalo, the hare, and the rabbit, besides that 
of many birds. Some people in China eat 
little puppies, some in Tartary eat horse-flesh, 
and the Arabs sometimes feed on young 
camels. 

What is poultry ? 

It is fowls or birds, such as the hen, the 
turkey, guinearfowls, peacocks, pigeons, ducks, 
and geese, which are domestic birds. 


child’s guide to knowledge. 


17 


Do these afford any food besides their flesh ? 

Hens, guinea-fowls, and ducks furnish eggs, 
which are eaten by themselves, and are some¬ 
times made up, with other articles, into cakes 
and puddings. 

What wild birds are eaten by man ? 

Partridges, wild geese, wild ducks, wild 
turkeys, pigeons, woodcocks, quails, grouse, 
and some others. 

How are these taken ? 

Sometimes they are shot, and sometimes 
they are taken in snares, or in traps, by the 
fowler. These wild birds are called game. 
Dogs called Pointers and Setters sometimes 
help to find and chase game. 

Where is fish found ? x 

In the sea, and in lakes and rivers. 

What are the best fish for the table in our country ? 

Salmon, cod, halibut, blackfish, bass, mack¬ 
erel, herrings, and eels. Besides these, we eat 
oysters, clams, crabs, lobsters, and turtle, which 
are not fish, but are found in water. They 
are, however, often called shell-fish. 

Do we cook all these different articles ? 

We do. Man alone uses fire to prepare his 
food: he has been called a cooking animal. 
Flesh and fish are called animal food, as are 
milk and its products, and eggs. 

2 * 


18 


child’s guide to knowledge. 



A Horse. 


What animals afford milk ? 

Human beings, and all quadrupeds. The 
milk-giving animals are called the Mammalia. 
Milk is designed for the food of the young 
animals; but the parent will sometimes give 
milk after the young are taken from her. 

What are quadrupeds ? 

All four-footed animals, from the little 
mouse, the least, to the elephant, the largest 
of all. 

Is the milk of all animals useful to man ? 

Ho; cow’s milk, ewe’s milk, goat’s milk, 
reindeer’s milk, and sometimes asses’ milk and 
mare’s milk, are used for nourishment, but not 
that of the wild animals. 

What are the products of milk ? 

Butter and cheese. 



child’s guide to knowledge. 19 

Where does all food come from ? 

Out of the ground. Grain and grass, ber¬ 
ries and nuts, feed what are called the herbiv¬ 
orous, or herb-eating animals, and man uses 
grain for his food. 

Are there any other animals besides the herbivorous ? 

Yes, the Predaceous, or prey-taking. These 
seize other animals, and feed on them, as the 
wolf seizes the sheep, the fox seizes the goose; 
and the vulture, eagle, and many other birds, 
devour any smaller animal they like for food. 

How do the Predaceous animals get their food from the 
earth? 

They feed upon the herbivorous animals, 
who first feed on vegetable food. 

What is vegetable food ? 

Whatever is produced by any plant, whether 
it be the root, fruit, stalk, or leaf of the plant 
which is used as food. 

Then it is not cruel or wicked to kill animals for food ? 

No, it is not cruel, because God, who made 
us, gave men and animals an appetite for ani¬ 
mal food, or a liking for it. 

Do we injure animals by taking their lives ? 

No; men feed and make animals comfort¬ 
able, that they may make good meat when 
slaughtered. The domestic animals would not 


20 


child’s guide to knowledge. 


live, nor be happy at all, if man did not keep 
them for his uses. Now they are happy until 
they are killed. 

Must all our appetites be indulged ? 

Not as much as will hurt us, but as much 
as will do us good. 

What is the effect of excessive eating and drinking ? 

Excessive eating will make us stupid and 
ill; excessive drinking will also hurt our minds 
and bodies. Enough, not too much, is a good 
rule. 

What are excess and moderation ? 

Excess is too much indulgence, or too much 
exertion. Moderation signifies doing or say¬ 
ing what ought to be done or said gently and 
quietly, thinking at the time what we ought 
to do and say. 

If men or animals have not enough to eat, what happens 
to them ? 

They feel want; they are hungry and thirsty; 
they famish, and sometimes die for want of 
food. 

If little children have only very poor or bad food, what 
happens to them ? 

They are weak and sickly, and do not grow 
up to be strong men and women. 

Ought we who have plenty of food to be very thankful ? 

Yes, and never devour more than is enough 
for us. 


child’s guide to knowledge. 


21 



Ears of Wheat 


Where are vegetables found ? 

All over the earth, except in deserts of sand. 

What are the chief kinds of plants or vegetables ? 

Herbs, shrubs, and trees, besides fungi, 
mosses, and algae. Algae are seaweeds that 
float in the water. 

How do you know these different vegetable families ? 

Herbs have no woody stalks, as grass and 
corn; shrubs have slender branches of wood, 
as the rose-bush ; trees have thick trunks, or 
boles of wood, as the pine and the oak; the 
fungi grow like mushrooms, without leaves; 



22 child’s guide to knowledge. 

and the mosses cling to wood and stones, and 
sometimes to the soil itself. 

What science describes vegetables ? 

Botany. 

For whose use are animals intended ? 

God, when he made the first man and 
woman, said, “ Let them have dominion over 
the fish of the sea, and over the fowl of the 
air, and over all the earth.” He also made 
animals to be happy. 

What is meant by man’s “ dominion” over these ? 

That he has a right to possess them, to use 
them, and to improve them when he can, and 
to do them no harm, for his sport and pleas¬ 
ure. 

How is food obtained by each person ? 

Some persons supply others by their labor 
and care, and some supply themselves by 
labor. 

How do we in general get our food ? 

We buy it, or pay for it. We consume it; 
others provide it. We are Consumers. The 
providers of it at first are Producers. Farm¬ 
ers and cultivators are producers. 

Do the same kinds of food serve the people of all coun¬ 
tries ? 

Ho; different countries have different cli¬ 
mates. Some are warmer and some colder 


child’s guide to knowledge. 23 

than others, so that some kinds of animals and 
some sorts of vegetables are found in one 
country that do not flourish in another. 

When a plant belongs to a country, and grows wild in it, 
what do we say of it? 

The native plant is Indigenous to that coun¬ 
try ; but if a plant be brought from a distant 
country, it is foreign, or Exotic. Grass is in¬ 
digenous with us, but the tea-plant is exotic, 
because it comes from China. 

When we say a plant is Naturalized, what do we mean? 

We mean that, though at first brought from 
another country, it now grows and thrives in 
this. 

By what arts do men obtain food ? 

By hunting, by pasturage, by fishing, by 
Agriculture, and Horticulture. 

Who practise hunting, or chasing wild animals for food ? 

Savage men, and people in new countries, 
who do not find time to feed, shelter, and rear 
domestic animals, or who do not understand 
the care of them. 

What is meant by pasturage ? 

The keeping of herds and flocks, such as 
cows, sheep, and goats, in large numbers, tak¬ 
ing them to graze or eat grass in fields, and 
then using their milk and flesh for food. 


24 


child’s guide to knowledge. 



A Flower. 


What other arts did you mention ? 

Fishing (which is drawing fish out of water) 
and Agriculture. 

What is agriculture ? 

Agriculture is ploughing the fields, sowing 
seeds in the soil, keeping it clear of weeds, and 
taking in the crop. 

What is the crop ? 

The corn, wheat, or any other grain taken 
from the field when they have done growing. 

What is the Harvest ? 

It is taking the crops out of the fields, and 
conveying them to the barn, for the use ol 





child’s guide to knowledge. 


25 


man and beast. After harvest, every year, in 
most of these States, the chief magistrate ap¬ 
points a day of Thanksgiving—a day for all 
people to thank God, who gives “rain and 
fruitful seasons.” 

What is Horticulture ? 

It is the cultivation of gardens, where vege¬ 
tables for the table and flowers are planted. 

What is a fertile soil ? 

The soil that affords abundant growth of 
vegetables is Fertile. Sterility, or barrenness, 
is opposite to fertility. A travelled road is 
sterile. 

What is famine ? 

It is scarcity of food. Famine seldom hap¬ 
pens in' these days, because cultivators take 
great care to prevent it, and food from one 
country can be sent to another. 

What are Orchards ? 

Plantations of fruit-trees—as apple-trees, 
peach-trees, &c. 


What is one of the most important articles of food ? 

Bread, which is made of the flour of wheat, 
of rye, of Indian corn, and barley. All these 
are graminse, or grasses, and the grain which 
makes bread is the ear or seed of each. 

3 



26 child’s guide to knowledge. 

Is the grain prepared for bread ? 

If one breaks a grain of wheat, he will see 
that the outside is a dry brown husk, within 
which is a white substance. This last makes 
bread, when the wheat has been ground in a 
mill. 

Who grinds it ? 

The Miller. The mill is either a water-mill 
or a wind-mill. Two large heavy stones, one 
over the other, are turned round, while the 
wheat is poured on them. The stones grind 
it to flour, anil it falls into a reservoir below. 

What makes flour white ? 

The brown husks are sifted or bolted out, 
leaving the white flour. The husks are then 
Bran. Brown bread is made by leaving some 
of the bran with the flour. 

Is bread made of any grain besides wheat ? 

Bread is often made of the meal of rye, 
Indian corn, oats, and barley; but wheaten 
bread is the dearest when bought, and is 
thought to be the best. 

What people prefer other bread to that of wheat ? 

The people of the Southern States like bread 
made of Indian meal, called corn bread; and 
they of Scotland and Wales eat, with prefer¬ 
ence, cakes made of oatmeal. 


child’s guide to knowledge. 


27 


What are the elements of flour ? 

Flour contains starch, gluten, and a little 
sugar. Starch is a sticky substance ; so that 
when we make thin paste of flour, the starch 
contained in the flour makes the paste sticky. 

Have you seen paste used ? 

I have seen paper fixed to the wall by means 
of paste spread on the paper. It dried, the 
paper adhered to the wall, and remained there. 

What made the paper adhere to the wall ? 

The starch which is in flour. Preparations 
of flour are very nourishing. 

What is nourishment? 

To nourish an animal is to keep it alive with 
proper food. 

Is a man or a child an animal ? 

Our bodies make us animals, but our minds 
make us intelligent beings, which cats and 
dogs are not. 

What are they ? 

All beings on the earth, except man, are 
brute creatures—not Rational, like human 
beings. 

What is Dough ? 

It is flour and water mixed together; but 
the mass is close and heavy until some yeast 
or fermenting substance, called Leaven, is 
added to it. 


28 


child’s guide to knowledge. 


What effect has the Leaven ? 

Cooks call it Raising the bread, which means 
that the leaven swells the dough, so that it 
takes up more room, becomes light, and when 
baked is fit to be eaten. 

Does the word Bread always mean bread only ? 

It often means all necessary food. “ Give 
us this day our daily bread” signifies, Be 
pleased to give us needful food. 

Does Christ speak of the Bread of Life ? 

He does ; but he did not mean bread to be 
eaten. Bread, in the gospel, means instruc¬ 
tion, truth, knowledge, and piety. 

Why think you that is its meaning ? 

Because, as bread nourishes our bodies, so 
will truth and piety nourish our souls—make 
us better, wiser, happier every day. 


Can Starch be separated from flour ? 

It can. A quantity of flour is mixed with 
water, set in the sun, or in a moderate heat, 
and, after a time, the starch falls to the bottom 
of the vessel, and the rest of the flour remains 
upon the surface of the water. 

What is then done ? 

The upper portion is taken away, the starch 



child’s guide to knowledge. 29 

is dried, having a little Indigo mixed with it 
to make it bluish. It is broken into grains, 
packed up, and sold. 

What use do we make of starch ? 

m We boil it in water, make it thinner or 
thicker as we like, and then stiffen muslin and 
other articles of wearing apparel. 

Is starch found in other vegetable substances besides flour ? 

It is found in the grains, seeds, roots, fruits, 
and stems of many plants. Some of these 
contain more, and some less, starch. Four- 
fifths of Indian corn are starch. This gives 
us corn-starch, which is nice food. 

Can you tell me some of the vegetables that contain starch ? 

Potatoes, Beans, Sago, Arrow-root, and 
Tapioca. 

For what are some of these used ? 

Potato starch is used like flour starch. Sago 
is the pith of a palm-tree growing in the 
Asiatic islands. Arrow-root is made from 
tubers growing in the West Indies. Tapioca 
is from the root of a South American plant. 

Are these substances ever cooked ? 

Sago and arrow-root are cooked for sick 
people, and for nourishment of infants. Tapi¬ 
oca is made into puddings. 

3 * 


30 child’s guide to knowledge. 

What are Tubers ? 

They are balls or knobs attached to the roots 
of some plants. Potatoes are tubers. 

What is Maccaroni ? 

It is a peculiar preparation of fine wheat 
flour. It comes chiefly from Italy. It looks 
like so many pipe-stems broken into pieces, 
except that it is of a yellowish color. The 
people of Naples like it very much. 

Does Vermicelli resemble Maccaroni ? 

It is made like it, except that it is in small 
strings, looking like so many worms. It is 
used in soup. 

What is Eye ? 

A grain sometimes made into bread, and 
sometimes Distilled. 

What is distillation ? 

Heating some grain or liquid until there 
rises from it a spirit called Alcohol, which 
makes whiskey, gin, rum, or brandy, accord¬ 
ing to the matter distilled. Many vegetables 
contain alcohol. 

What is distilled from Barley ? 

Whiskey and malt are made of it. 

What is Germination ? 

If I put a seed or grain into the ground, it 
puts out little leaves, which would run up and 


child’s guide to knowledge. 


31 


make the stalk, leaves, and seeds of a new 
plant. The first growth of a seed is the Ger¬ 
mination. 

Do you plant barley to make malt? 

No; a large heap of barley is wetted, and 
soon sprouts or germinates, but is not suffered 
to grow. It is put into a sort of oven, called 
a Kiln, and heated just enough to dry it, and 
stop the Germination. Then it is Malt. 

What is done with malt ? 

It makes porter, ale, and beer, when manu¬ 
factured. 

How are these liquors made ? 

To make ale and beer, hot water is poured 
on malt, as we pour it on tea to extract the 
color and flavor of the leaves. The water 
draws out the flavor from the malt and makes 
Wort. 

Is Wort beer? 

It is not beer until it has been boiled with 
hops. When this mixed liquor is cooled, some 
yeast is put to it, and, after a time, the whole 
becomes beer. 

Why is yeast added ? 

To make the mixture work, or Ferment. 
The yeast puts it in motion, throwing up what¬ 
ever is in the liquor which makes it thick; it 


32 


child’s guide to knowledge. 


Boon becomes clear, making more yeast, which 
is taken off the top of the liquor, and the beer, 
or ale, is drawn off into casks for use. 

What are Hops ? 

Hops are green flower-buds growing on 
vines. Hops are cultivated in fields, and the 
vines are twisted on poles. The hops, when 
ready, are sold to the Brewer, who makes beer 
in a great house called the Brewery. 

Is Porter made like beer ? 

Yery much, but it contains more alcohol. 
We say that porter and some kinds of ale are 
stronger than beer; that is, a great quantity 
of either being drunk will intoxicate. 

.. What is intoxication ? 

It is an effect of wine, spirits, cider, and 
strong beer taken into the stomach. 

What is the effect ? 

Intoxication often makes a person foolish or 
crazy, forgetful, and offensive to others, and 
at last makes him ill, and sometimes causes 
death. It is often called Inebriation and In¬ 
temperance. 

Does the Bible forbid this practice ? 

It does, saying, u Whether ye eat or drink, 
or whatever ye do, do it to the glory of God.” 
We do not honor God when we abuse our¬ 
selves. 


child’s guide to knowledge. 


33 


What are oats ? 

The seeds of an annual plant, which are 
given to horses for food, besides being ground 
into oatmeal for the use of man. 

What is an annual plant ? 

One, the seeds of which require to be sown 
every Spring, if we would have any crop in 
Autumn. The seeds of such plants ripen in 
one Summer, and are ready to be sown the 
next year. 

Are all vegetables annual? 

Many are Perennial, as asparagus and trees, 
which keep alive many years. 

Are vegetables alive ? 

They have a life of their own, because they 
grow from seeds until they bear seeds and 
fruit. 

Are fruit and seeds the same things ? 

Fruit, as cherries and apples, contains seeds; 
and each cherry or apple, put into proper soil 
or earth, will produce a tree. Growing and 
producing make Yegetable Life. 


What is our life ? 

The same as vegetable life, with Intelligence 
and the power of Locomotion added to that 
life. 



34 


child’s guide to knowledge. 


What is Intelligence ? 

Thinking much or little. A man has more 
intelligence than a dog. 

What is Locomotion ? 

The power to move from place to place ; to 
use one’s limbs as one likes. The power of 
Locomotion enables me to walk and run. 
Feeling pleasure and pain belongs to animal 
life only. 

What is an Organized being ? 

One that has Organs. Organs are a par¬ 
ticular part of the animal or plant designed 
for a particular use. 

What Organs have you ? 

I have eyes, ears, nose, tongue, lungs, and 
heart, besides my limbs and other organs. 

For what are these organs given to us ? 

The eye is the organ of sight, the ear of 
hearing, the nose of smell, the tongue of 
speech, the lungs of respiration, and the heart 
helps the circulation of the blood. 

Have the lower animals these organs ? 

Not exactly in the shape of ours, but they 
are organized beings, else they could not eat, 
run, creep, or fly, neither could they see, hearj 
breathe, and feel. 


child's guide to knowledge. 


35 


Have plants organs ? 

They have roots, stalks, trunks, leaves, and 
seeds. The flower belongs to seeds. When 
its petals (its colored leaves) fall off, a seed re¬ 
mains, which is afterwards fit to be planted. 

Are gold, silver, and stones organized? 

They have no organs. Look at every part 
of a stone, or break off a piece of it—the 
whole is alike. 

What are Minerals ? 

They are substances without organs, that#’ 
form the earth, or are found beneath its sur¬ 
face—such as chalk, clay, metals, and stones. 

Are minerals useful to man ? 

Man, with his mind, and with his hands; 
makes many uses of minerals. With his mind 
he contrives machines, with his hands he uses 
machines, and, by aid of the machines and of 
fire, he makes the minerals useful. 

By what instrument is man distinguished from the lower 
animals ? 

By his Hand. Monkeys have hands, but 
they have not intelligence to use their hands 
as a man uses his. The end of an elephant’s 
trunk a little resembles a thumb and finger, 
but it is far less perfect than a human hand. 

• What is an instrument ? 

It is what is often called an Implement or 


36 child’s guide to knowledge. 

Tool. It is a thing that can be used to per¬ 
form some action. A knife is an instrument 
for cutting, and a crowbar, or lever, an instru¬ 
ment for lifting. A hand is a Natural instru¬ 
ment, and so is an insect’s sting. 


Can you describe Kice ? 

It is a fine grain, white when the husk is 
removed, and very nutritious. It is cooked in 
many ways. 

Is rice indigenous to America ? 

We have wild rice in some of the Western 
States, but that kind we use at our tables was 
first brought from Asia to England, and from 
England to Carolina. 

Is rice much eaten in Asia ? 

Poor people in China seldom have any other 
food, and the Malays also subsist chiefiy upon 
it. It is cultivated in the north of Italy. 

What is the best rice in the world ? 

Tliat of Carolina; the grains of it, in size, 
are twice those of Asiatic rice. 

Does rice require much water to make it grow abundantly ? 

So much, that the rice • fields must be in a 
wet soil, and may be flooded by a river. To 
work in rice grounds, or to reside near them, • 
is unhealthy. 



child’s guide to knowledge. 37 

In Carolina, who chiefly cultivate rice ? 

Negro slaves, upon rice farms, or Planta¬ 
tions. Pice is a profitable article of Com¬ 
merce. 

What is Commerce ? 

It is the Selling of things we possess to 
others who need them, and the Buying of what 
we need; one person taking money, and the 
other giving it for goods. 

What does commerce depend much upon ? 

Upon transport of articles, chiefly upon rail- 
cars and navigation. Cars and ships convey 
commodities from one place to others very 
distant. Rice may be carried to England 
from this country, and tea may be brought to 
us from China. 

Who pursues commerce ? 

The Merchant, and those who assist him. 

What are kine ? 

Cows and oxen. The bull is the proper 
male, the cow the female, and the calf the 
little one. 

Are these animals mentioned in the Bible ? 

They are. The “ cattle on a thousand hills” 
mean cows and oxen. It is written in the 
Hebrew law, “ Thou shalt not muzzle the ox 
that treadeth out the com.” 

4 


38 


child’s guide to knowledge. 



What does that mean ? 

Thou shalt not tie up his mouth, to prevent 
his eating when he is hungry. 

How ought the ox and all other domestic animals to be 
treated ? 

With care and kindness. They should be 
well fed, and not over-worked. The Bible 
says, “A merciful man is merciful to his 
beast”—to the beast that labors for him.* 

How is the ox useful to man ? 

ITe carries heavy loads for him of hay, corn, 
stones, or any thing he wishes to transport. 
Two oxen are commonly fastened together by 
a yoke across their necks; each head being 
made fast to the yoke by a wooden bow, which 
is put upon their necks. 

Do oxen tread out our corn or wheat ? 

Our farmers beat off the grains from the 








child’s guide to knowledge. 39 

straw with two sticks tied together, called a 
Flail. The Hebrews used to make the oxen 
tread upon the grain until they had broken 
off all the ears. The broken straw is the 
Chaff 

What other service do oxen perform ? 

They help to plough up the soil, that it may 
be prepared for the seed to be sown. The 
Egyptians, a long while ago, worshipped 
oxen, and made images of them, because they 
were so useful to man. 

Have any people now a great regard for cows ? 

The Brahmins, some people in India, honor 
cows as holy beings. They would on no ac¬ 
count kill a cow or calf. 

Are oxen and cows useful after death ? 

Their flesh, bones, hoofs, horns, hair, and 
skin are all useful. Their flesh is Beef; their 
bones are ground in a mill to make manure; 
their hoofs and the foot-joint are made into 
glue; their horns make combs; their hair is 
mixed with mortar, and their skin makes sole- 
leather. 

How is the cow useful when living ? 

She produces milk, which makes butter and 
cheese. 

Is milk all of one substance ? 

Milk contains whey, which is the substance 


40 


child’s guide to knowledge. 


of curd, oil, and a little sugar. These are all 
mixed in the wholesome white fluid the cow 
affords. 


What is Cream ? 

The oily part of milk. If the milk is set 
in a broad pan, the heaviest part falls to the 
bottom, and the lighter part, which is cream, 
rises to the top o£ the pan. 

Of what is Butter made ? 

Of the milk before the cream rises, or of 
cream only, for the cream contains all the 
butter. 

How is butter made ? 

By moving the milk or cream rapidly; this 
is best done in a Chum. A chum is a wooden 
vessel into which the cream is put and beaten 
with a Dash. 

How is this done ? 

The dash is a flat piece of wood at the ena 
of a staff; the staff passes through the top of 
the churn, and the cream is beaten with it un¬ 
til the butter appears. 

Is there any other sort of churn ? 

The farmers in New-York State use what is 
called a Dog-churn. The dog is made, by 
climbing up and down a movable board, to 



child’s guide to knowledge. 


41 


turn the box containing milk or cream till the 
butter is formed. 

Do people in all countries use butter? 

Much butter is not used in hot or in very cold 
countries. In very hot countries butter soon 
turns rancid; it then has a disagreeable taste, 
and is unwholesome. In very cold countries 
cows will not thrive. The poor Greenlanders 
and Esquimaux have neither butter nor bread. 

What do they tlse instead I 

Dried fish and fish oil. People leam to 
like the food with which Providence supplies 
them, for they can get no other. 

What is sometimes used instead of butter in Europe ? 

In Italy, Spain, Portugal, and in the South 
of France, little butter is used ; Olive-trees in 
these countries supply olives, from which the 
oil is extracted, which we call sweet oil; this 
is often used instead of butter. 

What is Ghee ? 

It is the name of butter made in India from 
buffalo’s milk. The buffalo resembles the ox 
and cow, and is made to work in Italy like 
the ox. 

What is Cheese ? 

It is the curd of milk, dried, and pressed 
into a mass. A piece of Rennet, which is the 
4 * 


42 


child’s guide to knowledge. 


stomach of a calf, dried and salted, is put into 
milk, and that turns it to curd. 

Does the whole of the milk become cord ? 

The milk, in order to make cheese, is set in 
a kettle over the fire; the rennet is put into 
it, and very soon it is turned to curd and 
whey. 

What is then done to it ? 

*The curd is strained off from the whey, very 
dry, and salted; it is then broken up by the 
hands of the dairy-woman, and put into a 
cloth, which is placed in a round wooden band, 
just of the size of the intended cheese. It is 
then pressed in a frame made for the purpose, 
and after it is kept long enough is fit to be 
eaten. 

Is there but one kind of cheese ? 

There are several kinds made in different 
countries : some flavored with sage and other 
herbs. 

Where are cheese and butter made? 

In a cool room, called the Dairy, fitted for 
the purpose. Milk should be kept cool. To 
make cheese, requires much milk. It is made 
where there is much grass for the cows, and 
where many are kept. 

Can you tell me of any other animal products ? 

\ 

J 


child’s guide to knowledge. 


43 


Lard, the fat of swine; Tallow, that of sheep 
and kine; and suet, Fat often cut from pieces 
of beef. Lard serves to fry with, tallow makes 
common candles, and suet is used in cooking. 
Lard is also mixed by the apothecary with 
salves and ointments. 



Do all persons know how to read and write ? 

]STo; many persons in all countries are never 
taught because there are not schools for all 
children, and some live too far from school to 
attend. 

What is a Public school ? 

One where children may be taught without 
paying for instruction. 

Who pays the masters and mistresses of these schools ? 

The Public pays the instructors, and also 
pays the teachers. 












44 


child’s guide to knowledge. 


What is meant by the Public 1 

The public means all the persons who live 
in one society of people; in the same city, 
or town, or village. 

How do the public pay for the school ? 

All persons who have Property, that is, 
house, land, or money, give each a little 
money to support the school ? 

Do they all give the same ? 

The person who has much money gives 
more, and he who has very little gives little; 
this money, all together, is the School-tax. 

What is a Tax ? 

Money that all persons pay for something 
useful to all. 

Can you give an example ? 

Money that all pay for lighting the streets 
of a large town or city, at night, that all may 
not be in darkness when they are abroad, is a 
tax which makes every body more safe and 
comfortable when they go out at night. 

Why are there not schools everywhere ? 

Because some people are too poor to pay 
for a school; and some do not know enough to 
know how useful learning is. 

What is a Community ? 

All persons who live in society, and who 
are governed by the same laws. 


child’s guide to knowledge. 


45 


What is a Colony ? 

It is a company of people who leave their 
own country to live in another, hut still being 
governed by laws, and sometimes by magis¬ 
trates, sent from their former country. Surinam 
is a Dutch colony, and the island of Jamaica 
is a British or English colony. 

What is meant by the phrase “ Mother Country ?” 

It is the country from which colonists have 
emigrated. Colonists of a distant country are 
Subjects; residents in a free country are Citi¬ 
zens. 

What is a Free country ? 

One in which the citizens choose their own 
magistrates or rulers, and make their own 
laws. 

Who make the Laws ? 

The citizens choose certain men among 
themselves to meet and make laws for the 
community : these men are the Legislators. 

Had people always books to read ? 

Books for all people were not known to the 
Ancients. 

Who were the ancients ? 

The ancients were men and women who 
lived many centuries ago, as the ancient Ro¬ 
mans who lived in Italy, and the ancient 
Greeks in Greece. 


46 


child’s guide to knowledge. 


What is a Century ? 

It is one hundred years. It is eighteen and 
a half centuries since the birth of Christ. We 
say, now, this present year, A. D. 1852. Our 
time, now, is in Modern times. 

What is meant by A. D. ? 

It signifies Year of our Lord, which is Anno 
Domini, in Latin. 

What is Latin ? 

The language of the ancient Romans. 

Is Latin spoken now ? 

Latin is very seldom spoken now, but it is 
often studied and read. 

Why is Latin studied ? 

That the learner may be able to read the 
books written long ago in that language. 

Are any other ancient languages studied ? 

Hebrew, Greek, and some others. 

What books were written in these languages ? 

The Old Testament was written in the He¬ 
brew, and the Hew Testament in Greek. These 
two are the whole Bible. The books first 
written in Greek and in Latin are called the 
Classics. Languages only written are called 
Dead Languages; those spoken, Living Lan 
guages. 


CHILD & GUIDE TO KNOWLEDGE. 


47 


Have we classical books in our English language ? 

Many of them are turned into English ; we 
say, they are Translated. 

Why is the language of American people called English ? 

Because the first white men who came to 
this country, now called the United States of 
America, spoke the English language; they 
worshipped God in English, and had their 
laws written in it. 

Are there no residents in these States but those who speak 
English ? 

There are many Germans, Frenchmen, and 
people from other European countries; but 
our books are in the English language, and 
it is the language of our nation, and of our 
laws. 


Have people always had Paper ? 

Paper made of linen rags has not been used 
more than five hundred years ; since the mid¬ 
dle of the thirteenth century. 

What was used instead of paper ? 

Parchment was often used. Parchment is 
the skin of sheep or lambs, made thin, smooth, 
and a little stiff. But parchment was dear 
and scarce; few people had it. 



48 * child’s guide to knowledge. 



Open Book. 


How long liave we had printed books ? 

Only since 1444, about four hundred years. 

Who invented Printing ? 

Perhaps several persons invented it; some 
persons say that John Faust, and others that 
John Guttenberg, both Germans, invented the 
art of printing. 

Where was printing first practised ? 

On the continent of Europe. Bibles were 
first printed in Paris. 

Was there much call or demand for Books then ? 

In the fifteenth century there were few peo¬ 
ple who could read or write, so that they had 
no great want of them. 

What created demand for books ? 

When books were printed, people, finding 
they could have such as had been written be- 








child’s guide to knowledge. 


49 


fore, learned to read, and had their children 
taught to read. 

Were there no schools before there were printed books ? 

There were some schools, but all the books 
used in them were written out and cost a great 
deal. Some good people gave large sums of 
money to support these schools, and some 
children attended them. 

How is a book made ? 

The Author or contriver of the book thinks 
what he wishes to have printed, writes it out, 
sends this writing to the printer, who puts it 
all in leaden letters or Types, and prints it out 
on paper. 

Is that all which is done to the book ? 

The printed sheets are sent to the binder, 
and the leaves are then folded; it is next 
pressed in a frame ; then covered, and sent to 
the bookseller to be sold. 

What is a printing-press ? 

A machine that presses sheets of paper 
upon types, which are smeared over with ink. 
The paper absorbs the ink, and we can read 
the pages. 

What are pages ? 

One side of a printed leaf. The Leaf of a 
book is so called because long ago people made 
5 


50 child’s guide to knowledge. 

letters on the leaves of the Palm-tree. Some 
people in Asia write on leaves now. 

Is nothing printed but books ? 

Newspapers and handbills. Newspapers, 
sometimes called Gazettes, were first printed 
in England in the sixteenth century, and also 
in France, but not every day as at the present 
time. The newspaper is now to be found in 
almost every house. 

Who first introduced printing into England ? 

William Caxton began printing in England 
in 1471; he learned the art in Germany. 

Is paper useful in many ways ? 

Paper serves many uses. What we call 
Waste paper is one use; it is much used for 
Envelopes, or to wrap up light things in; then 
there is painted paper that we put upon walls, 
and Writing paper. 

Are there no other kinds ? 

There is thick paper of which light boxes 
are made, and Papier Mache. This last is 
many sheets together pressed tight, made 
smooth, painted and varnished. Port-folios, 
and very pretty boxes, are made of Papier 
Mache. 

From what is the name Paper taken ? 

From Papyrus, a reed growing in Egypt. 
The inside of the reed is soft and white, and 


child’s guide to knowledge. 51 

strips of it laid or woven together, being 
pressed and dried, made a kind of paper which 
was once more nsed than parchment. 

Was Bark ever used as paper? 

The inner bark of the beech, and of the lin¬ 
den-tree, will make a poor kind of paper, once 
nsed in Europe for want of something better. 

What is supposed to have been the most ancient mode of 
writing ? 

On tablets of stone, metal, or wood. Tablets 
or tables are like slates, larger or smaller. 
The letters were cut or graven on stone and 
metal. 


What was engraved on tables of Stone ? 

The Ten Commandments or Decalogue 
found in Exodus, chapter xx. God gave 
these to Moses foj the Hebrew people, and 
for all people everywhere. 

When did Moses receive the Commandments ? 

About fifteen centuries before Christ came. 

Did Moses know letters ? 

Moses must have learned to read in Egypt, 
where he was bred up. The Egyptians could 
write and read, and so could the Hebrews, 
else God would not have given them a law 
to be read. 



52 


child’s guide to knowledge. 



Tables of the Commandments. 


Did the Greeks engrave on stone ? 

They did so. There are marbles now in 
England, brought from Greece, which are en¬ 
graved with letters. 

Did the Romans engrave on metals ? 

The Romans had some famous laws which 
hey sent to Greece for^^d these, called the 
1 Laws of the Twelve "Bibles,” were'en^fcaved 
>n tablets of brass. 

Gould the people read these tablets ? 

They were set up in a public place that all 
who could might read them, and others who 
could not might hear them read. 

How were Greek and Roman children taught to "write ? 

A tablet of wood was given them covered 
thinly over with wax. Besides this, the 



child’s guide to knowledge. 53 

learner had a little roller and an iron pin, 
called a Stylus. 

What did he with these ? 

The writer made letters on the soft ^ax, 
and when they were not well made, he rolled 
down the wax smooth with his roller, and so 
made the letters over again until they were 
well done. 

When did Pens and Ink come into fashion ? 

Whenever Papyrus, paper, and parchment 
came into use. The first pens were Reeds. 

Had the ancients great Libraries ? 

Very few persons had such in private 
houses, but at Alexandria in Egypt, and at 
Pergamos in Asia, great libraries were col¬ 
lected. 

What is a Library ? 

It is a collection of books, more or less in 
number. 

What are some of the largest Libraries in Europe ? 

The Vatican Library in Rome; the Royal 
Library in Paris; the Bodleian in Oxford; 
and the Library of the British Museum in 
London. 

Are there great libraries in other cities ? 

Berlin, Petersburg, Vienna, Copenhagen, 
and all large towns in Europe contain public 
5* 


54 


child’s guide to knowledge. 


libraries to which persons desiring informa¬ 
tion are allowed access. 

Have we considerable libraries in the United States ? 

We have none so large as those of Europe, 
but some containing thousands of volumes in 
all written languages. 

Where are these libraries ? 

They are, principally, the University Li¬ 
brary of Cambridge, Massachusetts; the Phil¬ 
adelphia Library; the New York Society Li¬ 
brary, and the Astor Library, also in New 
York. 

What is the meaning of the word Scripture ? 

Scripture properly means a Writing, but 
has long been used to signify the Old and 
New Testament or Bible, commonly called 
“ The Scriptures.” 

What is the meaning of the word Scribe ? 

Scribe, in the Gospel, means men learned 
in the Scriptures and laws of the people; men 
who explained their law to the Jews. 

Is there no other meaning for Scribe ? 

Scribe was also a person who wrote out and 
copied books before printing was practised. 
The room used for this purpose was called a 
Scriptorium. 


child’s guide to knowledge. 


55 



A roll or yolnme. 


What are reeds ? 

The Reed is a tall, grass-like plant that 
grows on the borders of rivers and brooks. 
The seed is hollow, and when full grown be¬ 
comes stiff and dry. 

How was it made into pens ? 

The reed was cut into proper length for 
pens; then it was sharpened and slit like a 
quill pen. Turks, Moors, and Asiatics still 
write with the reed. 

What are Quills ? 

The long wing feathers of birds. The quills 
commonly used for making pens are chiefly 
those of the goose, which are prepared on 
purpose. 

Is there no other sort of pen ? 




56 


child’s GUJHE to knowledge. 


Quills are not much used now, but pens of 
gold or of steel are used instead. Steel pens 
are made in vast quantities in Birmingham, 
England. 

What is the meaning of the word Volume ? 

Yolume, or Yolumen, means a roll. In 
ancient times a book written out was rolled 
up like a map, and unrolled for convenience 
of the reader. 

Is there no printing but that of words and letters ? 

There is printing of pictures, calico printing, 
and lithographic printing. 

What is picture printing ? 

This is often called Engraving, and the 
pictures so printed are Prints. These are 
often very beautiful. 

Can you describe engraving ? 

The figure of birds, men, flowers, trees, or 
any object, is cut in strong lines on wooden 
blocks or copper or steel plates; the lines are 
filled with ink, paper is pressed on them, and 
the paper takes off in ink the engraved picture. 

What is Lithography ? 

A cheap mode of engraving by means of 
blocks of stone. 

Is Printers’ ink like writing ink ? 

Hot exactly; it is a thicker substance, and 


child’s guide to knowledge. 57 

will not run through paper, so that both sides 
of a sheet may be printed. 


Are all things which arc around us of the same thickness 
and hardness ? 

Some substances are harder and some are 
softer and thinner than others. 

What is a hard substance ? 

One that I cannot press my finger into, as 
iron or wood. A soft substance is one that I 
can make an impression upon, as on butter, 
in summer. 

What are your Faculties ? 

Powers that I can use. I have the faculty 
of sight, and that of hearing. My Senses are 
Faculties. 

What are your senses ? 

Seeing, Hearing, Smelling, Tasting, and 
Feeling; by means of these I perceive all that 
I know, and I understand by means of my In¬ 
telligence, that is, by my intellect or under¬ 
standing. 

Has the marble image of a child any intelligence ? 

Hone, because it is only a material thing; 
it cannot perceive or know any thing for want 
of Intellect. 



58 


child’s guide to knowledge. 


What is Matter ? 

We call that Matter which cannot feel, 
know, or think. 

Do we know nothing but about matter ? 

We are acquainted with Spirit and Matter. 
That which feels and knows something, and 
that which neither knows nor feels. 

Are all things Solid ? 

All things are solid, fluid, or gaseous; a 
block of stone is solid, and so is ice; but water 
and vinegar are fluids, and the air we breathe 
is gaseous. 

How do you describe the difference ? 

A Solid may be lifted from place to place 
in one mass or piece, but will not pour along 
in a stream like fluid water ; and a gas is so 
fine that it can only be felt, not seen, as I feel 
wind blow, or smell gas from burning coal. 

What is Density ? 

The consistence of things; wood is more 
dense than soft soap, soap than molasses, mo¬ 
lasses than milk, milk than water, and fluid 
water than steam; steam is water made warm, 
and dispersed in the atmosphere. 

What is Evaporation ? 

When a pan of water is set in the air, the 
water rises in Vapor into the air, and leaves 
the pan quite dry. 


59 


child’s guide to knowledge. 

What are Particles and Atoms ? 

Very fine portions of any substance, like 
grains of sand, or of flour; each particle is 
sand or meal as much as the whole quantity. 

Can heavy solid substances become particles ? 

By grinding them to dust they may. 

What are Pores ? 

Little holes often too fine to be seen with 
the naked eye, which exist in all solid sub¬ 
stances. The pores of sponge are easily seen; 
they suck up or absorb water when the sponge 
is thrown into it. 

Do pores make things lighter to lift ? 

The more and the larger pores are in any 
substance, the more light it is. Pine wood 
contains larger and lighter pores than hickory 
wood, and hickory is therefore the heavier. 

What is Melting ? 

Melting, or fusion, is the change from solid 
to fluid by means of heat. If I put a piece of 
ice into some warm water, or set the ice in a 
warm place, the solid ice will be turned to 
fluid water ; it will be liquefied. 

If you put a lump of sugar into water what will become 
of it ? 

The sugar will melt in the water, and the 
particles of sugar will be mixed with particles 
of water. The sugar will be Dissolved in 
water; it will be held in solution. 


60 


child’s guide to knowledge. 


Can you get your sugar again ? 

If I set it in the sun the water will evapo¬ 
rate, and the sugar will he left in small crystals. 

What are Crystals ? 

Whatever substance is first melted and then 
made solid, takes, in the solid form, shapes of 
its own, called Crystals. The crystals of salt 
are not shaped like those of sugar. 

Did you ever see crystals of water ? 

Water when it is freezing forms crystals; 
they look at first like needles of ice. This is 
the Crystallization of water. 


What is Tea ? 

Tea is the leaves of a plant which is culti¬ 
vated in China, and is said to grow also in 
Japan and in Siam. We drink an extract 
from these tea leaves. Boiling water is poured 
on them, which draws out the flavor or taste 
of the tea. Tea is usually, but not always, 
drunk with the addition of milk and sugar. 

Is tea all of one quality ? 

No; Teas are divided into Green and Black, 
and these into better or poorer sorts ; the bet¬ 
ter kinds being more costly than the poorer. 

Who uses Tea? 

These different kinds of tea are used all 


CHILD S GUIDE TO KNOWLEDGE. 


61 



Tea Plant. 


over tlie United States, over great part of Eu¬ 
rope and Asia, and in the European colonies. 
The rich and the poor alike have learned to 
consider tea a necessary article. 

Has tea always been used in Europe ? 

Tea is supposed to have been brought into 
Holland from the East, by a Dutch merchant. 
An English gentleman drank some in London 
not quite two hundred years ago, in 1661,but 
people in general knew nothing of it. 

Who first imported much tea to England ? 

A company of English merchants called the 
East India Company, in 1678 imported several 
thousand pounds of tea. From that time 
greater quantities were brought into that isl¬ 
and, and at length all people could obtain it 
6 


62 child’s guide to knowledge. 

Vast quantities from that time have been im¬ 
ported from Canton, in China. 

Do all qualities of tea grow on one plant ? 

That is not known. The Chinese do not 
allow strangers to visit their plantations. It 
is supposed that leaves plucked at different 
times make different sorts of tea. Some tea 
consists of very coarse leaves and stalks. 

Who drinks Buch tea ? 

Yery poor people, especially the Tartars. 
Tea of this quality is pressed into little 
clocks, and is called Brick tea. The Tartars 
on long journeys boil a lump of this tea which 
makes bad water less disagreeable to drink. 

How is the tea-plant cultivated ? 

By sowing the seeds at proper distances, 
and keeping the young plants clear of weeds. 
In three years they afford their first crop of 
leaves. 

Do they continue to grow ? 

These plants increase in size for several 
years, from seven to ten; they are then cut 
down, and new shoots springing from the roots 
produce new crops of leaves, or tea. 

How is the tea made fit to drink ? 

By drying the leaves in pans over furnaces, 
and then rolling them up by hand. After¬ 
wards the tea is packed and sold. 


child’s guide to knowledge. 63 

Could not we in this country produce tea ? 

Perhaps it might he done in the Southern 
States, but labor is too high in the United 
States for the cultivation of tea. 

What is the price of labor ? 

Wages, or money, paid to those who work 
for others. The Chinese will work for less 
wages than men in the United States, and the 
cultivator and the merchant can afford to sell 
the tea for less money than Americans could 
sell it for. 


What is Sugar ? 

A sweet substance made of the juice of 
several vegetable products, as the Saccharum, 
or sugar-cane, the beet-root, and the sugar- 
maple tree of the United States. The honey 
extracted from flowers contains sugar. 

Was sugar always known in Europe ? 

No; sugar-cane was brought from Western 
Asia into Sicily. In 1403 the Portuguese 
planted it in the island of Madeira, and about 
one century later, the Spaniards sent it to the 
West-India islands. There it has been culti¬ 
vated by negroes during three hundred years. 

Which of the islands produces the largest quantity of sugar ? 

Cuba, still a Spanish island, and the largest 



64 


child’s guide to knowledge. 



of those islands. The State of Louisiana pro¬ 
duces much sugar by the labor of slaves. 

What sort of a plant is the sugar-cane ? 

It belongs to the graminse, or grasses, but 
is much larger than maize or Indian corn, 
having a tall stem as thick as a man’s arm; 
from this the sugar is obtained. 

How is sugar made ? 

The canes at a proper time are cut down 
and carried to a mill. Being there crushed 
between rollers, the juice runs out and flows 
into a receiver; it is conducted to a boiler, 
and after being boiled several times it Crys¬ 
tallizes. 

What is Crystallization ? 

The change of a fluid into a solid form. 







child’s guide to knowledge. 


65 


Water frozen into ice is crystallized. The 
separate particles of brown sugar are crystals. 

Is there no other substance contained in new sugar ? 

Yes, the sweet substance called Molasses, 
which is drained from the sugar. 

What alters sugar from brown to white ? 

A process called Kefining. This is done by 
pouring melted sugar through vessels full of 
holes in the bottom. A cloth is laid upon the 
bottom of this vessel; then some charcoal 
made of burnt bones is spread over the cloth, 
and the melted sugar is strained through. 

In what state is the sugar after this process ? 

When cooled, it has become white; the 
brown color has entered into the charcoal, and 
the sugar is fit to be used. 

Is there other sugar besides that of the cane ? 

There are Beet-sugar and Maple-sugar. 
Beet-sugar is made and used in France. Ma¬ 
ple-sugar is made in the Middle States of this 
Union from the sap of the maple-tree. It may 
be refined so as to become quite white. 

How is the sap procured ? 

The tree is bored, and a hollow stick or tube 
of wood is inserted in it; the sap flows into 
the tube, running out at the end and falling 
into a vessel set to receive it. When a certain 
6 * 


child’s guide to knowledge. 


quantity has been collected from many trees, 
the sap is boiled to sugar. 

At what time of the year is this done ? 

In frosty weather. The sugar season lasts 
from February to April. 

What can be obtained from molasses ? 

By distilling it, Bum is obtained. This is 
an intoxicating liquor; but the alcohol con¬ 
tained in rum is good for many uses. All 
vegetable substances which contain sugar will 
afford Alcohol. 

What is a common use of Alcohol ? 

It is burned in spirit-lamps to heat water 
and other things, because it makes no smoke 
in combustion. 

What is Combustion ? 

Combustion is what we call “ burning up 55 
a substance. Combustion changes wood to 
smoke and ashes. Some substances are Com¬ 
bustible, as paper and cotton; and some are 
Incombustible, as iron, clay, and bricks. 


What is Coffee ? 

Coffee is the seed of a shrub ; it is brought 
to this country from Arabia, Java, Brazil, 
Surinam, and the West Indies. It is contained 



child’s guide to knowledge. 67 

in a berry having two seeds with the flat sides 
facing each other. 

Is coffee indigenous to Arabia ? 

It is supposed to have been brought there 
from the neighboring country of Abyssinia. 
Abyssinia is said to produce as good coffee as 
the Mocha or Arabian. 

How is coffee prepared for use ? 

It is roasted and then ground to powder. 
The flavor is obtained from it by boiling 
water, and the liquid coffee, with the addition 
of milk and sugar, is taken at breakfast and 
at other times. 

Is coffee much used ? 

It is very extensively used in Europe and 
in the United States. In France and in Tur¬ 
key there are houses or rooms where coffee 
ready prepared is always sold ; these are 
Coffee-Houses ; in the French language, Cafe. 

Do the people of our country consume much coffee ? 

A vast quantity; not less than 90,000 tons 
of coffee were imported into the United States 
in 1851. 

When was coffee first used in Western Europe ? 

About one hundred and fifty years ago, 
(1700), Governor Yan Home, a Dutch gen¬ 
tleman, procured seed from Mocha, and reared 


(IS child’s guide to knowledge. 

coffee-plants in Java; of these he sent one to 
the botanical garden in Amsterdam. 

Of what service was this coffee-plant ? 

The seeds of this plant were sent to the 
warm country of Surinam, a Dutch colony 
of South America, and from those seeds all 
the coffee of that part of the world has been 
produced. 

Will coffee grow in cold climates ? 

No, it requires a warm country; our sum¬ 
mers are not long enough to ripen the coffee 
seeds, and our long cold winters would kill the 
roots. 

Is the coffee shrub perennial ? 

A perennial plant lives many years ; Coffee 
plants begin to produce at two years and a 
half old, but those of five years afford the best 
coffee. 


What is Cocoa, sometimes spelled Caeoa ? 

It is the seeds of an evergreen tree, indi¬ 
genous to South America, but also cultivated 
in the West Indies and in Southern Asia. The 
seeds, about twenty-five in number, are con¬ 
tained in pods. 

IIow is cocoa generally used ? 

It is manufactured in different ways. Pure 



child’s guide to knowledge. 69 

cocoa, the shells having been taken off, is 
often ground to powder, and after boiling is 
used with milk and sugar like tea and coffee. 

What is Chocolate ? 

It is a preparation of cocoa, made into a 
paste, sometimes containing sugar, and shaped 
in a mould; it then becomes hard and dry, and 
is sold in cakes. 


What are Condiments ? 

Substances added to ordinary food to give 
it a higher flavor, as salt, pepper, and mus¬ 
tard. 

What are Spices ? 

Aromatic, or sweet-smelling substances, also 
added to food to heighten its flavor, as Nutmeg 
and Cinnamon. 

What is Table-salt ? 

A substance found in springs, mines, and 
in sea-water. At Salina, near the town of Sy¬ 
racuse, in the State of New York, there are 
springs of water containing great quantities 
of Salt. This water, drawn out and evapo¬ 
rated, leaves the salt, which is refined and 
sold. 

How is sea-salt procured ? 

By drawing up sea-water into broad shallow 



70 child’s guide to knowledge. 

troughs, and evaporating it, as is done with the 
water of* brine-springs. 

Where are there salt mines ? 

There are some both in Poland and in Eng¬ 
land ; the former are near Cracow, and belong 
to the emperor of Austria. These mines are 
so vast that arches and streets have been dug 
out of the salt, and they are inhabited by la¬ 
borers. 

Where are the salt-mines of England? 

In the western part of the island, chiefly at 
Nantwich, in Cheshire. 

Is salt a necessary of life ? 

It appears to be so; the greater part of our 
food is made more palatable, more agreeable 
to the taste, by the addition of a certain por¬ 
tion of salt. Salt is found in all countries, but 
is not everywhere very abundant. 

Do brute creatures relish salt? 

They do. Salt-licks, or waters containing 
salt, attract wild animals, the buffalo and 
others, in the W estem States. Domestic cattle, 
sheep, oxen and cows, like salt in the dry fod¬ 
der they live on in winter. 

Is salt useful to preserve any thing ? 

Y es, for preserving beef, fish, and other ani¬ 
mal food, so that it can be kept wholesome 


CHILD S GUIDE TO KNOWLEDGE. 


71 


for months ; if it were not for the application 
of salt, these articles would spoil, or Putrefy. 

What is Putrefaction ? 

It is a change which happens to animal sub¬ 
stances that makes them offensive and hurtful. 
In tlxis state they soon fall apart, and return 
to dust; that is,-to the earth. 

What is Decomposition ? 

Putrefaction is sometimes called Decompo¬ 
sition. To Compose is to unite, or to mingle 
different substances together; to Decompose 
is to take them apart. 


What is Pepper ? 

The dried berry of a creeping plant growing 
in Malacca and other places in that vicinity. 
The berries hang in clusters like a bunch of 
currants. Pepper is hot or Pungent. 

What is Mustard ? 

It is the crushed seed of a plant which 
flourishes both in England and in the United 
States, and which grows wild in some places. 

What is Allspice ? 

It is the fruit of the pimento-tree, which 
grows in Jamaica and in other West India 
Islands. It is called Allspice because it is 
said to have the flavor of many spices. 



72 


child's guide to knowledge. 


What is Nutmeg ? 

It is the fruit of a tree found in the East 
Indies. The nutmeg grows like ouKcommon 
nuts, and is contained in an envelope like 
them. 

What is Mace ? 

It is a sort of lining to the nutmeg husk, 
and is very aromatic. 

What is Cinnamon ? 

The under bark of a tree which grows in 
Ceylon and in some other islands. Cinnamon 
is ground and used in powder, or is boiled in 
milk to flavor custards. 

What are Cloves ? 

Cloves are the flower-buds of an East Indian 
tree, and are used in soups and other articles 
of high-seasoned food. 

What are Caraway and Coriander Seeds ? 

They are seeds used mostly by druggists 
and confectioners, to flavor medicines and 
cakes. These seeds are produced in England. 

What is Ginger ? 

The dried root of a reed-like plant. It is 
found in hot countries, and makes an agreeable 
preserve. 

What is Turmeric ? 

A vegetable substance of a bright yellow 


child’s guide to knowledge. 


73 


color used in dyeing, and also in Curry. Curry 
is a powder used by some persons in cooking 
meat. 

What is Licorice ? 

Licorice grows in England and is used as 
medicine. The stalks when dried are very 
sweet, and the juice can be boiled to consid¬ 
erable solidity. 

What is Saffron ? 

It is a yellow flower from an herb growing 
in England and the United States. It is used 
in dyeing. 

What is Betel-nnt ? 

A nut which is not known in these States ; 
it grows on a tall palm-tree, and all palms are 
the growth of hot countries. Some of the 
Asiatics chew slices of betel-nut, as some men 
among us chew tobacco, until it blackens their 
teeth. 

Is this a good habit ? 

It is not; this chewing is not taking food, 
and often makes a person disagreeable to 
others. 

What is Wine ? 

It is the juice of Grapes fermented and 
made clear. Besides grapes, other fruits will 
7 


74 


child’s guide to knowledge. 


make wine, as Elder-wine, Gooseberry-wine, 
and Currant-wine. 



Grape-vine. 


Will Apples make wine ? 

The juice of crushed apples is Cider; this 
might be called Apple-wine. Cider and all 
wines become sour, and make vinegar. 

Do the Scriptures mention wine ? 

Frequently; Psalm civ. says that the Lord 
gives “wine that maketh glad the face of 
man,” and Christ turned water to wine at the 
wedding feast in Cana of Galilee for the use 
of the guests assembled on that occasion. 

Does the Bible recommend the use of wine ? 

King Solomon in his book of Proverbs re¬ 
commends that men should u look not on the 


child’s guide to knowledge. 75 

wine-cup,” for “ at last it biteth like a serpent 
and stingeth like an adder.” 

What does that mean ? 

It means that excessive use of wine will 
make a man miserable, and therefore if he 
desires to drink much, it were best he should 
not even look at the wine-cup. 

Where does wine come from ? 

There are many kinds of wine : Port comes 
from Portugal, Sherry is made in Spain, 
Claret and Champagne from France, Madeira 
from the island of Madeira, and what are 
called Rhine wines from Germany. 

Do the French drink much wine ? 

The French use Claret, or what are called 
“ light wines,” for common drink. Such wine 
is not strong, and will not intoxicate if not 
used extravagantly. 

Will Grapes grow in cold countries ? 

In such countries they will not grow to per¬ 
fection in the open air; but in temperate cli¬ 
mates, as in France, Spain, and Italy, the 
grape-vine flourishes. In Italy grape-vines 
are trained from one tree to another. 

How are Grapes cultivated ? 

In a field called the Yineyard. The season 
of gathering grapes is the Vintage. A Yine¬ 
yard looks not unlike a bean-field, the vines 


76 child’s guide to knowledge. 

being kept small, and trained upon sticks not 
above eight feet in height. During the vin¬ 
tage the laborers employed in it are very busy 
and very gay. 

Is wine made in this country ? 

Some wine is made in the State of Ohio, 
near Cincinnati. 

What is Brandy ? 

It is a strong intoxicating spirit obtained by 
distilling wine, and sometimes fruits ; there is 
Apple-brandy. Brandy is imported from 
France to this country. Gin, Whiskey, and 
Rum are also intoxicating spirits, prepared in 
different ways. 

What is Honey ? 

A sweet substance sucked from the nectary 
of flowers by bees, and deposited by them in 
hives or in hollow trees. 

Does honey afford any intoxicating drink ? 

It may be mixed with water and fermented 
so as to make a wine called Mead or Metheg- 
lin. In Germany and in the northern coun¬ 
tries of Europe much metheglin was formerly 
made and consumed. 

What foreign fruits do we import ? 

Oranges, Lemons, Limes, Shaddocks, Pine¬ 
apples, and Bananas; besides Almonds, Cocoa- 


child’s guide to knowledge. 


77 


nuts, Dates, Citron, Raisins, Prunes, dried 
Currants, Figs, Pomegranates, and Tamarinds. 



Pineapple. 


Where do our best Oranges come from ? 

They come from Cuba, and are called Ha¬ 
vana oranges. We also have oranges from 
Sicily. The best oranges known in England 
are produced in St. Michael’s, one of the 
Azores—islands west of Spain. 

Do lemons resemble oranges ? 

Oranges are sweet, generally, while lemons 
are Acid, or sour. Limes are also sour ; they 
are of a greenish color, are round, and smaller 
than lemons. 

What is the use of Lemons and Limes ? 

Lemons are often grated for the skin, or 
peel, and this peel is used to flavor different 

7 * 



78 child’s guide to knowledge. 

articles of food. Lemon-juice, squeezed out, 
or expressed, is often mixed with water and 
sugar; this agreeable drink is called Lemon¬ 
ade. Lemons afford a salt called Salts of 
Lemon, which is very acid, and will remove 
stains from linen. Lime-juice is used in the 
same way. Limes grow in Spain, Portugal, 
and Egypt. 

What is Citron ? 

Citron belongs to the same family of trees 
as the orange and lemon, but the fruit is dif¬ 
ferent from those, being remarkable for a thick 
spongy rind, which, when in the Natural state, 
is very fragrant. It is often preserved. 

What is the natural state of fruit ? 

The natural state of a fruit is that in which 
it grows when first taken from the tree, with¬ 
out any cooking. The citron we use is the 
preserved rind, which, cut in slices, is put into 
puddings and cakes. 

What is Sherbet ? 

A beverage much like lemonade, made of 
any fruit, especially limes. In hot countries, 
in Turkey, in Persia, and in Egypt, the in¬ 
habitants drink Sherbet. Shaddocks some¬ 
what resemble an orange, but they are larger, 
have rather a bitter flavor, and a thick tough 
skin. 


child’s guide to KNOWLEDGE. 79 

Where do Pineapples abound ? 

They are native in Africa and South Amer¬ 
ica, and are brought to the United States 
from the West Indies. They grow without 
trunk or stalk directly from the root. 

Will pineapples grow in England or the United States ? 

Pineapples in these countries may be made 
to grow under glass in pots, or in a Hot-house, 
that is, a house of glass, within which the sun 
produces a much greater heat than in the 
open air. 

What are Bananas ? 

They are the fruit of a tree which grows in 
hot countries. The fruit grows in bunches, or 
clusters, and looks like small smooth cucum¬ 
bers. The skin being drawn off, within is 
found a soft fruit as juicy as the pineapple, 
which is much liked for its flavor. 

What are Almonds ? 

Almonds look somewhat like a peach-stone 
or Pip (not pit), but the shell is brittle and 
may be broken by the fingers. The kernel is 
covered with a rough skin, not well-flavored. 
When this is removed, the pure white almond 
is very palatable. 

In what countries do almond-trees grow ? 

In France, Spain, Italy, and Western Asia. 
The almond is often pounded with sugar, and 


80 child’s guide to knowledge. 

put into cakes and confectionery. Pressed 
almonds afford oil which is used in medicine. 

What is a Cocoa-nut ? 

An oval nut, sometimes measuring twenty 
inches round, though it is generally less. The 
kernel, which is of a pure white, lines the 
shell, and at the bottom, as in a cup, is con¬ 
tained the sweet juice often called cocoa-nut 
milk. 

What sort of tree is the Cocoa-nut ? 

It belongs to the family of Palms. These 
all grow in a tall shaft, or trunk, like a tall 
cane, bearing their fruit and a tuft of leaves 
in the top. This column of the cocoa-nut tree 
often rises to the height of sixty or ninety 
feet. It produces leaves and fruit long before 
it reaches this height, so that the head of the 
tree constantly pushes up from the trunk. 

Are marks of this growth left on the tree ? 

Yes; wherever leaves have been, two rings 
are formed round the tree; thus for every two 
rings one year of the tree’s age is counted. It 
bears about a dozen or fifteen leaves from 
twelve to fourteen feet long on its summit. 
These look like plumes, and have been com¬ 
pared to Ostrich feathers. 

Where do the nuts grow ? 

Among the leaves. In wet seasons this tree 


child’s guide to knowledge. 81 

blossoms every six weeks, so that flowers and 
ripe nuts may be seen on the tree at the same 
time, from five to fifteen nuts in a bunch. A 
good tree will produce one hundred in a year. 

Are the leaves useful ? 

They are very useful: they serve to thatch 
or cover the roofs of cottages, to make bas¬ 
kets, and even to write upon with the pointed 
instrument called a Stylus. Poor people in 
Ceylon and Brazil feed almost entirely on the 
cocoa-nut. 

Of what other use is this tree ? 

The shell of the nut serves for measures and 
drinking vessels ; the fibres from the husk 
make ropes, and polish furniture; the kernel 
affords oil that is burned in torches; the 
wood can be used for posts, beams, and fences, 
and its ashes afford much Potash. This tree 
is one of the most useful known. 

Where does the cocoa-nut abound ? 

It grows near the sea, in Brazil, Ceylon, 
and in all Tropical Islands. 

What are Dates ? 

A fruit in appearance a little resembling a 
plum, but it is more solid and less juicy when 
brought to this country in boxes or bags of 
matting, pressed into a mass. Palm-trees are 
of many sorts, or varieties. 


82 


child’s guide to knowledge. 



Palm-Trees. 


Has the Palm-tree any resemblance to the Cocoa-nut tree ? 

They are alike in their general structure, or 
form, but their fruit is quite different, except 
that they are both very nutritious, or nourish¬ 
ing, and both afford sustenance to great num¬ 
bers of people. 

Where is the date-bearing palm very abundant ? 

In Egypt and on the African coast of the 
Mediterranean. Palms grow in Palestine. 
The Gospel relates that when our Lord entered 
Jerusalem, not long before the Crucifixion, the 
people strewed branches of trees in the way 
in honor of him. These are supposed to have 
been palm branches. 

Who celebrate this event ? 

Catholic Christians make a religious pr^- 





CHILD'S GUIDE TO KNOWLEDGE. 


83 


cession in Italy on Palm Sunday, which is the 
Sunday before Easter; and having palm- 
branches procured from abroad, strew them in 
the streets. 


What ore Eaisins : 

Raisins are dried grapes, brought to the 
United States from the best grape-bearing 
parts of Europe. Some of the best come from 
Malaga, in Spain. 

What are Prunes ? 

They are dried plums exported from France; 
when stewed, prunes are very wholesome. 

What are Currants ? 

We use two sorts of Currants, one culti¬ 
vated in our own gardens, and the other, dried 
black Currants imported from Zante, one of 
the Ionian Islands. The last are a small 
stoneless grape, which is put into cakes and 
puddings. 

What are Figs ? 

Figs are the soft sweet fruit of the Fig-tree; 
they grow in all warm countries. The dried 
figs sold in this country are chiefly brought 
from Smyrna; some come from Spain and 
Italy. They are brought to us in round wood¬ 
en boxes called Drums. 



84 child’s guide to knowledge. 

Are Figs mentioned in the Bible ? 

Many times, both in the Old and the New 
Testament, which shows that they grew in 
Palestine, the country of the Bible. 

What are Pomegranates ? 

They are shaped like an apple, and are fxill 
of seeds, to each of which is attached a sweet 
pulp, which is eaten. The flower is of a rich 
crimson color, and may be seen in this coun¬ 
try, sometimes in Conservatories, and some¬ 
times in the open ah*. 

Of what country is the Pomegranate a native 

It is found in Africa, and also in the East. 

What do you understand by the East ? 

The countries of Western Asia, even to 
Persia ; countries further east we call the 
Indies and China. 

What is a Conservatory ? 

A convenient building formed chiefly of 
glass, but not heated, intended for the pre¬ 
servation of exotic plants in cold weather. 

What are Tamarinds ? 

A tropical fruit, consisting of flat smooth 
stones in a long pod; with the addition of 
syrup they afford an agreeable drink, often 
used by the sick. 



child’s guide to knowledge. 85 

What are the fruits of the Northern and Middle States ? 

They are apples, pears, grapes, cherries, 
strawberries, chestnuts, hazel-nuts, peaches, 
plums, apricots, quinces, and various native 
berries. 

What are the best Apples in the United States ? 

Those called Newtown Pippins. They will 
remain sound during winter, and some of 
them are sent to Europe for sale. A piece of 
land containing fruit trees in regular rows is 
an orchard. Pears, first brought to this 
country from France, are extensively culti¬ 
vated. 

Are Pear-seeds sown to obtain pear-trees ? 

The nursery-man produces many little trees 
in this way; these afterwards are transplanted 
to other grounds, but it is uncertain what 
quality of fruit will grow from such trees. 

How then is good fruit obtained ? 

By a process called Engrafting. If a person 
desires that his young trees should produce 
apples, pears, or any fruit of some particular 
species, he seeks a tree of that sort in a proper 
season, and cuts off certain buds attached to 
a part of the stem on which it grows; he then 
inserts this graft into the stem of a young 
tree, called the Stock. 


8 


86 child’s guide to knowledge. 

« 

How is this done ? 

He makes a little slit in the inner bark of 
his stock, and bringing his graft to a point, 
smoothing one side of it, he pushes it into the 
slit. He next surrounds the graft and the 
stem containing it with a paste of clay, which 
he leaves about them. In a few months the 
scion or graft joins itself to the tree and pushes 
out leaves. 

Do the stock and the graft grow together ? 

The stock is afterwards cut away, and the 
graft grows to be a tree of the sort whence it 
was taken, affording fruit like that of the pa¬ 
rent tree. 

Have we native grapes ? 

We have wild grapes, which, being culti¬ 
vated, improve much in size and flavor. 

Have we any wild or native Cherry-trees ? 

We have, but the cherries are chiefly used 
to put into brandy, thus making a drink called 
Cherry-brandy. The bark of the wild cherry, 
when ground up, affords an extract used as 
medicine. 

For what is this extract given ? 

Weak people take it as a Tonic, a medicine 
to increase strength. Wild cherry-tree wood 
is used by the Cabinet-maker. 


child’s guide to knowledge. 


87 


Where were our best Cherries brought from ? 

This fruit is said to have been introduced 
into Europe from Cerasus, in Asia Minor, on 
the borders of the Black Sea, and from there 
brought to this country. 

Are Strawberries indigenous in these States ? 

Yes, they are found wild in the fields and 
woods, but are brought to greater perfection 
in the garden. There are many varieties of 
strawberries. 

Have we Chestnuts and other nuts ? 

We have chestnuts and other kinds of nuts. 
Our chestnut is not half the size of those of 
Spain and France, which are sweet, and when 
roasted, very palatable. All chestnuts are 
inclosed in a very prickly husk, which falls 
off when they are ripe. The Italians make 
meal of chestnuts, which, when cooked, they 
call Polenta. 

Does the chestnut-tree grow to great size ? 

It does, and also lives for centuries. The 
Horse-chestnut is what we call a “shade-tree,” 
and is much planted in the streets of towns, 
and as ornamental to houses. Its nut is bitter, 
and not fit to be eaten. 

What are Hazel-nuts ? 

A small fruit resembling the Filbert. The 
hazel-nut is round, twice the size of a large 


88 


child’s guide to knowledge. 


pea; it grows on a tall thick bush, and has a 
hard shell. The Filbert, resembling it in fla¬ 
vor, is considerably larger, and is imported 
from France. 

How do Shell-barks and other native nuts grow ? 

Upon tall trees. The wood of nut trees is 
valuable ; Hickory wood, sometimes burnt as 
fuel in houses, is very strong, and serves many 
uses; that of the Black Walnut is of a dark 
color, and is made into furniture. 

Are Plums plentiful in this country ? 

They are, both of the wild species and from ■ 
engrafted trees. They are a stone fruit, eaten 
fresh or preserved, and are much cultivated in 
Europe and the United States. 

Have we Peaches ? 

Peaches grow in great quantities, and we 
have also Apricots and Nectarines. Apricots 
and nectarines partake of the nature of the 
peach and plum, and are both stone-fruits of 
delicious flavor. 

Where have these fruit-trees come from ? 

They, like the cherry, were carried from 
Western Asia to Europe, and then exported 
to the United States; here they reward the 
cultivator by bringing a high price in large 
.owns. 


child's guide to knowledge. 


89 


What are Quinces ? 

They are a foreign tree, but naturalized 
here. The quince-tree is so small as some¬ 
times to be called a bush. Pears, peaches, and 
apples may be engrafted on quince stocks, but 
the trees thus treated grow no larger than the 
Quince-bush. They are called Dwarf trees, 
as human beings of diminutive stature are 
called Dwarfs. 

What are our native berries ? 

Gooseberries, Raspberries, Blackberries, and 
Whortleberries, are those chiefly eaten. These 
may be preserved in sugar, like the quince, 
which is only so used. 

What are Capers ? 

The flower-bud of a creeping shrub which 
grows in Italy and the south of France, and 
also in the island of Majorca. Capers are 
preserved in salt and water with a little vine¬ 
gar. They are exported to different countries, 
and eaten with boiled mutton. 

From whence have we Olives ? 

Olives are imported from France, Spain, 
and Italy. Olives, a stone-fruit of a peculiar 
green color, thence called olive-green, are 
pickled in salt and water, and much liked by 
some persons. The olive affords the oil which 
is called Sweet Oil, that is eaten upon salads. 

8 * 


90 


child's guide to knowledge. 


Has the olive-tree any character ? 

Its branches are called the Emblem of 
Peace, because when Noah sent a Dove out 
of the ark, she returned to him with an olive 
branch in her bill. This assured the Patriarch 
that the waters of the Deluge had subsided, 
and that the trees were vegetating, so that he 
and his family might go forth upon the earth. 

How is tlie Dove an emblem of Peace ? 

An emblem is a sign of something not ex¬ 
pressed in written or spoken words. The dove 
could not speak, but she brought the Olive 
branch. Noah, seeing her with it, thought, 
There is peace now on earth. The rain and 
storms have ceased, and God has revived all 
things, that I and my children may enjoy 
them. Thus were the Dove and the Olive- 
branch emblems. 

When did this happen ? 

About 1656 years after the creation of the 
world. 


How do we light our houses at night ? 

We light them with candles and lamps. 
Candles are made of wax, of spermaceti, and 
of tallow; and lamps are fed with lard oil or 
whale oil, and with Camphene. 



child’s glide to knowledge. 


91 


What are these different substances ? 

Wax is a vegetable product obtained by 
bees from flowers. The honey is deposited 
by them in cells called Honeycomb, made by 
the bees for the reception of honey in the hive. 
Wax is also made by bees of honey, which 
they change into wax; it is naturally of a 
yellow color. 

Can that color be removed ? 

Yes, by a process called bleaching. The 
wax is melted and spread into thin sheets; 
these laid for some days in the sun become 
beautifully white, and can be made into purely 
white candles. 

What is Spermaceti ? 

It is a fat substance found in the head of a 
Whale. The whale is the largest fish known ; 
he is found in the Pacific Ocean, also in the 
Arctic, and sometimes approaches our own 
coast. 

How is the whale taken ? 

By persons known as Whalers, who go out 
in search of him. These adventurers are 
sometimes three or four years away from home 
before they get oil enough to make a Good 
Voyage? 

What is a good voyage ? 

That in which the whalers get so much 


92 child’s guide to knowledge. 

sperm and oil as will sell for money enough 
to pay the captain and his men, that is, the 
crew, and the ship-owner besides, for all that 
has been spent to fit out the ship for sea, keep 
the men, and to give all these some money, 
over and above all that was laid out. This 
last is the Profit. 

Are Spermaceti and Oil the same substance ? 

ISTo ; when a whale is taken, the head of the 
whale, often twenty feet in length, is found to 
contain both Spermaceti and oil. They can 
be separated; one of these substances, when 
purified, makes Spermaceti, and the other oil. 
One is made into candles, the other burned in 
lamps. 

Is Spermaceti useful for other purposes ? 

Yes; it is mixed with 'other matter in 
salves and cerates, and applied to sores which 
are healing. 

What is Lard Oil ? 

The fat of swine melted; this oil gives a 
good light in burning, and is useful where 
whale oil is not easily procured. Tallow is 
the fat of beef and mutton. It makes common 
candles. 

Can you describe a Candle ? 

A candle is a Cylinder of wax, spermaceti, 
or tallow ; it is generally formed in a mould. 


child’s guide to knowledge. 93 

The wick is a string of twisted or braided 
cotton yarn fastened to the top and bottom of 
the mould. The wax or tallow, when melted, 
poured into the mould, takes the shape of it, 
and incloses the wick. 

When will the candle bum ? 

When the wick is set on fire; the burning 
of it melts the wax or sperm, and both, burn¬ 
ing together, will afibrd light. 

Which gives the greater portion of light, a lamp or a 
candle ? 

A lamp of a certain construction, the wick 
surrounding a cylinder, will give out as much 
light as ten spermaceti candles weighing six 
to one pound; but in order to do this, the 
lamp burns out more oil. A common lamp 
gives no more light than a candle. 

What is the Gas used in lighting houses ? 

It is obtained by burning bituminous coal, 
and is conveyed from the reservoirs where 
it is made, along the street, through pipes 
under ground, and from these pipes through 
lamp-posts, and into houses. 

What are the properties of this gas ? 

This gas has a bad odor, and is unwhole¬ 
some to respire, but it is very inflammable, 
blazes when kindled, and gives a brilliant 
light; for that reason it is used in stores, 


94 child’s guide to knowledge. 

houses, churches, and other public build¬ 
ings. 

What is Camphene ? 

Camphene is a mixture of alcohol and Spi¬ 
rits of Turpentine. It is fluid, and is much 
used in lamps ; but it is not safe to use it. 
The # Camphene will take fire spontaneously in 
a very warm room, or near a heated stove. 
In that case it Explodes, or bursts the lamp, 
is spilt around, blazes up, and burns every 
thing near it. Thus many persons have been 
burnt to death. 

What is Spontaneous Combustion ? 

It is taking fire, blazing and burning, from 
the heat within a substance, or from the air, 
without the contact of any fire, or kindling. 
Hay in a barn will sometimes ignite in this 
way. 

Does a candle bum Spontaneously ? 

Ho; it would never burn unless fire were 
communicated to it: we must Ignite, or set fire 
to it, by some flame applied to the wick. 

What are Lucifer Matches ? 

They are little slivers of Pine wood tipped 
with Phosphorus mixed with Gum or Glue. 
The points of the matches are first dipped in 
sulphur, and then in this mixture. They are 
afterwards dried, and are ready for use. 


child’s guide to knowledge. 95 

How are they used ? 

To light lamps and candles, and to kindle 
fires. Phosphorus is very combustible; by 
friction, or rubbing, on a rough surface, the 
Match is made to blaze, and will communi¬ 
cate fire. 

What is Phosphorus ? 

It is a substance extracted from bones. One 
sixth part of dried bones is phosphorus. Pure 
phosphorus is a poison, and should be kept 
out of the air, or it will take fire. 

Is there any other name for fire ? 

Yes; it is sometimes called Caloric. All 
things contain more or less caloric. When 
any substance does not feel hot to the Hand, 
we call the heat within it Latent Heat; but 
^hen a substance is hot to the touch, its 
warmth is called Sensible Heat. 


How do we heat our houses ? 

By means of fuel burned in chimneys and 
furnaces, such as wood and coal. Sometimes 
water is heated, and the steam forced through 
small metallic pipes which are laid in different 
rooms, and the air of the rooms is heated by 
the pipes. 



96 child’s guide to knowledge. 

How does a Furnace warm a house ? 

Cold air from without is let into a part of 
the furnace, and the ignited coal in it heats 
the air. The air thus heated passes upward 
into different openings in the walls, or the 
floors of the rooms, and warms the atmosphere 
of those rooms. 

Is Wood much used as fuel ? 

It is not so much used in this country as 
formerly, because Anthracite coal has taken 
the place of it, and Bituminous coal is used 
in some families. 

Where are these coals found ? 

They are dug out of the ground, and there¬ 
fore are called Mineral coal. Anthracite is 
harder than bituminous coal; the latter seems 
to melt as it burns, and makes more smoke. 
People often call it Soft coal. Both are very 
black. 

Where is Anthracite obtained ? 

It is brought in vast quantities from the 
State of Pennsylvania, which contains exten¬ 
sive mines or deposits of coal. 

Where is Bituminous coal procured from ? 

It is brought chiefly from Liverpool in 
England, having been conveyed to that 
port from the northern part of that country, 
where immense quantities exist; but there is 


child’s guide to knowledge. 01 

bituminous coal in different parts of North 
America, though the mines are not much 
wrought. 

What consumes great quantities of wood and coal '( 

Steam Engines. These are employed in 
various factories, and for giving speed to trav¬ 
elling cars, and steam-ships. 

Do the lower animals use Fire ? 

No, the Creator has not given them Intelli¬ 
gence to manage it. The Proverb says, “ Fire 
is a good servant, but a bad master.” It re¬ 
quires discretion, or good judgment, to use so 
destructive an element. 

Can you tell me some of the most important uses of Fire ? 

It keeps men comfortable in cold climates 
and cold seasons. It cooks our food, else 
ii would be neither wholesome nor palatable; 
and without it we could not make any porce¬ 
lain or pottery vessels, nor adapt metals to 
our service. 

What should we be deprived of without Fire ? 

We could have no knives, nor any edge- 
tools ; no needles, ploughshares, and no metal 
money, without fire employed in the manu¬ 
facture of them. We could not exist our¬ 
selves, for without animal heat we should be 
hard as stones, without life and feeling. 

9 


98 child’s guide to knowledge. 

If a man sets fire to a house by design, what is his crime ? 

In the law-books it is called Arson. He 
who commits this crime is an Incendiary, and 
is punished by long imprisonment. The 
burning of many houses, either by accident 
or design, is a Conflagration. 


Of what substances is our Clothing composed ? 

Of wool, cotton, flax, silk, leather, and fur. 

What is Wool? 

The curled hair or covering of the sheep, a 
quadruped known in all civilized countries, 
and often mentioned in Scripture. The young 
of the sheep is called the Lamb, and is a very 
pretty and gentle creature. 

Who are mentioned in the Bible as tending flocks! 

Jacob kept Laban’s sheep, Moses kept his 
father-in-law’s sheep in Midian, and King Da¬ 
vid, when a youth, kept his father’s sheep. 
These great men were shepherds. David, in 
the Psalms, says, “TheLord is my Shepherd, 
I shall not want.” The occupation of tending 
flocks is a Pastoral mode of life. 

How is wool obtained from the sheep ? 

In the warm season the sheep has too much 
wool on his back for his comfort, and the 



99 


child’s guide to knowledge. 

owner, wanting the fleece, cuts it off. He has 
the sheep first washed clean in a brook or 
river, and waits until the wool is dried before 
it is sheared off. 

What is then done with the wool ? 

It is picked over, or sorted; the finer being 
put together, and also the coarser. The former 
is sold at a higher price than the latter to the 
manufacturer, and some is spun in families to 
make into yarn, and to weave into cloth. 

Is the new wool fit for use at first ? 

Ho, it must be oiled before it will run into 
yarn. Then it may be drawn out by proper 
machines into threads, finer or coarser, and 
afterwards woven. When the grease is washed 
out of the cloth, it is dyed if desirable, or left 
white. 

What is manufactured of wool ? 

Stockings, broadcloth, blankets, shawls, flan¬ 
nels, and a thin article called muslin de laine, 
or muslin of wool, and another of coarse wool, 
Felt, which is contained in men’s hats. 

By what machine is Cloth woven ? 

Woollen yarn is woven into cloth by a ma¬ 
chine called a Loom. The threads running 
lengthwise are the Warp, and the crossing 
threads are the Woof. The whole piece is the 
Web. 


100 child’s guide to knowledge. 

Are these all the uses of Wool ? 

I cannot enumerate them all; but besides 
the articles I have mentioned, mattresses are 
made of wool; and some poor people in Eu¬ 
rope and in Tartary wear garments made of 
the fleece itself; this is the sheepskin with the 
wool upon it. 

Are there different sorts of Sheep ? 

Yes, there are many species. The Merino 
sheep of Spain, and the Saxony sheep afford 
the finest and most valuable wool. A species 
of African sheep has so large a tail that it 
may be put into a little cart to be carried 
about by the animal. 

What plant is useful in the manufacture of woollen cloth ? 

Teasel. Whole fields of this plant are cul¬ 
tivated for the manufacturers. The flowers 
of teasel, when it is cut and dried, have scales, 
so rough that when the teasel is drawn over 
newly-woven cloth it raises a Nap upon it. 

What is the Nap ? 

It is fibres of the wool raised on the surface 
of the cloth. That furry appearance which 
hides the threads in blankets is the Nap. 
This nap is afterwards made smooth. 

What is Cotton ? 

A vegetable product so much resembling 
wool as sometimes to be called “ Cotton-wool.” 


child’s guide to knowledge. 101 

Cotton grows upon a shrub from three to fif¬ 
teen feet high, according to the species, for 
there are several sorts of cotton; one kind is 
of a Nankin color, and others nearly white, 
though a little yellowish. 



Cotton-Plant 

How does Cotton grow ? 

In a husk which contains a hard seed. 
When this is quite ripe, the husk opens, and 
a little bunch of fibrous cotton is found at¬ 
tached to the seed. 

By means of what instrument is the cotton torn from the 
seed ? 

From large quantities the cotton is tom 
from the seeds with great rapidity by means 
of a powerful machine called the Cotton-Gin, 

In what countries is Cotton produced ? 

In warm countries; in Southern Asia, in 
9 * 


102 child’s guide to knowledge. 

Africa, in the Southern States of North Amer¬ 
ica, and in Brazil. Cotton flourishes best near 
the sea. Certain islands near the coast of 
South Carolina produce the best cotton known. 
This is called Sea-Island cotton. 

Is the use of Cotton very ancient ? 

Yes ; cotton has been used in Persia, India, 
and other Asiatic countries from the remotest 
antiquity. India cotton goods were formerly 
exported to England and the United States. 
Manufactured cotton is yarn, cotton cloth, 
Chintz, and Calico. 

What are Calico and Chintz ? 

They are cotton cloth stained or painted in 
different figures. Calico makes dresses for 
women and children ; chintz, stamped in 
larger figures, is used for coverings of furni¬ 
ture, beds, sofas, and chair cushions. 

Of what are Stockings made ? 

Of Worsted, a woollen yarn, of cotton 
thread, and also of silk. Stockings are both 
knit and woven. 

Are India cotton goods still exported ? 

• No, because the great quantities of cotton 
produced in the United States, and manufac¬ 
tured here and in Britain, are sufficient for 
the uses of the inhabitants. 


Is cotton a native of this country ? 


child’s guide to knowledge. 103 

t 

Cotton plants were first conveyed to Europe 
from Persia, and other Eastern countries. 
Having been sent to the Bahama Islands, 
some of the seeds thence conveyed were plant¬ 
ed in Georgia in 1786 (above sixty years ago). 
These were the parents of all our great cotton 
crops since produced in the United States. 

What has extended the use of cotton ? 

Many machines that have improved the 
modes of working it. That of Richard Ark¬ 
wright, invented in 1769, and other later in¬ 
ventions, especially the Cotton-Gin. 

Who invented this machine ? 

Mr. Eli Whitney, a gentleman belonging 
to Hew Haven. Before this machine was in¬ 
vented, the preparation of cotton was so slow 
and laborious as to make it of little value. 

Are machines of immense service to mankind ? 

It cannot be imagined of how much use 
they are. Our hands are natural instruments, 
which, alone, could accomplish but little for 
our necessities and comforts. How much more 
rapidly does the steam-engine, that mighty 
machine, carry us over the ground than our 
own feet could do ! 

Who contrives instruments ? 

The Mechanician contrives them: the Me¬ 
chanic uses them. We call the Inventor a 


104 


child’s guide to knowledge. 


person of “ mechanical genius.” These are 
great benefactors of mankind, diminishing the 
toil and increasing the comforts of millions of 
their fellow-creatures. 

Who chiefly cultivate cotton in the United States ? 

The proprietors of lands called Plantations 
employ their negro slaves in this occupation. 
Nearly one million of colored men, women, 
and children, are thus employed. The Plant¬ 
ers, the gentlemen owners, sell the cotton to 
the Merchant, who again sells it to the Manu¬ 
facturer, who provides all persons with such 
cotton articles as they will purchase. 



Woman Spinning. 


What is Flax? 

Flax is the fibres of a plant cultivated in 
Europe and in the United States. The flax 
stalks, when ripe, are pulled up and laid in 












child’s guide to knowledge. 105 

bundles; these are steeped in water, and when 
dry the seeds are broken from their tops. 

What is then done to the Flax? 

It is combed out with a comb, properly 
called the Heckle. The teeth of the heckle 
are of steel, and about four inches long. These 
teeth are fixed in a square board, or piece of 
wood, with their sharp points standing up, 
and the flax stalks are drawn over them. 

What effect has Heckling upon flax? 

It separates the threads, or fibres, within 
the stalk, from the dry hull, or husk, on the 
outside of it. The flax, when heckled, resem¬ 
bles so much hair in appearance; thus we 
hear of “ flaxen hair.” 

Is the Fibre all alike? 

The longer and finer portion is only called 
Flax, while the shorter and more woody part 
is Tow. Flax is stronger than tow, but tow 
serves to make coarse brown cloth. 

Into what is flax chiefly manufactured? 

Into Thread for sewing, Linen, and Lace; 
these are made white by bleaching. Fine 
table-cloths, napkins, and towelling are made 
of flax. 

Will flax run out in spinning to a very fine thread ? 

One pound of flax will run to 11,110 
yards of thread, and indeed to a much 


106 child’s guide to knowledge. 

greater length: of the finest thread French 
cambric is made. 

In what country are great quantities of Linen made ? 

In Ireland; the best linen we have is 
brought from that country. Flax is some¬ 
times cultivated for home consumption. 

Is flax ever spun in our houses? 

It is manufactured in families, being spun 
into thread upon the spinning-wheel, and then 
woven in the domestic loom for bed linen, 
table-cloths, and the wear of the household. 

What is the general substitute for linen? 

Cotton cloth, which is hardly one-quarter 
of the price of linen. 

What is Cambric? 

An extremely fine manufacture of flax 
thread, made in France. We use it for frills 
and for nice pocket handkerchiefs. The prin¬ 
cipal manufactures of linen-cambric, and fine 
lace, are in Valenciennes, in the north, near 
Belgium. 

What does Solomon say of a virtuous woman? 

In Proverbs, chapter xxxi., king Solomon 
describes a good housewife of his time, one 
thousand years before Christ. He says, “ She 
seeketh wool and flax, and worketh willingly 
with her hands.” And also he says, “She 
maketh fine linen and selleth it.” 


CHILD S GUIDE TO KNOWLEDGE. 107 

Who does this woman resemble? 

The industrious farmers’ wives of the pres¬ 
ent day, who live far from towns, where they 
might buy what they now make with their 
own hands. 

Has flax other uses besides those you have mentioned ? 

Flaxseed tea is remedial to sore throats and 
colds. This seed contains oil, which may be 
pressed out. This is called Linseed oil, and is 
used by the house-painter in mixing his colors. 


Of what are Sails and Ropes made ? 

Of Hemp. This plant, like flax, contains 
strong fibres that can be dressed and woven 
into cloth. Hempen cloth is of so firm a 
texture that it is better fitted to resist the 
winds at sea than any other. 

What besides sail-cloth is made of Hemp ? 

Cordage, or Ropes; these are of greater or 
less thickness, according to the use required of 
them. The largest kind of rope is the Cable, 
used in managing a ship. A roll of this great 
rope may often be seen coiled up on the deck 
or floor of the ship. Ropes are useful for 
many purposes. 

Where does Hemp flourish? 

Both in warm and in cold countries. Rus- 



108 child’s guide to knowledge. 

sia produces great quantities of hemp. An¬ 
other article is brought to the United States 
from Manilla, one of the Philippine Islands, 
which resembles Hemp, but which only serves 
to make ropes. 

V 


What are Pins? 

Pins are pointed instruments made of brass 
wire, used to fasten one part of dress to an¬ 
other. All people do not use brass pins; 
savages use thorns and fish-bones for their 
purposes : our nice pins have not always been 
used in Europe. 

When did modem pins come into use? 

In the sixteenth century pins of bone, 
ivory, and silver, were employed in England, 
but poor people made no use of these, which 
were larger than our pins in common use. 

When did these come into use? 

Not all at once; pins were made better 
and better until they were of all sizes, and 
being stuck in papers, are now in general use. 

IIow many persons are required to make a pin in Eng¬ 
land? 

One cuts the wire into lengths intended, 
another makes the point, another the head, 



child’s guide to knowledge. 109 

another puts it on, another plates or washes 
them over, and at last they are stuck into 
papers. Some other operations employ ten 
persons on each pin. 

What is Division of Labor ? 

It is the employment of several persons to 
begin and complete different parts of a manu¬ 
factured article. Each does his own work only. 

Could not one person make a pin? 

Hot with the quickness with which it is 
now made. u Many hands make light work” 
is a proverb, and very true. 

Are pins made in the United States? 

Very good pins are made in Poughkeepsie, 
in the State of Hew York. 

Are pins made in Connecticut? 

They are, and by a machine invented there 
which requires the attendance of one person 
only to cut the wire, to point, and head the 
pins. 

Are the Americans famous for Mechanic invention ? 

This talent they possess in great excellence, 
and have contrived numerous machines which 
diminish labor, or make it easier. 

What are needles? 

A steel instrument used in sewing, which 
is called “ needle-work.” Heedles are of dif¬ 
ferent sizes, from the mattress-needle (five or 
10 


110 child’s guide to knowledge. 

six inches long) and the sail-needle, to the 
cambric-needle, which carries the finest thread 
and makes the finest work. 

Were needles known to the ancients? 

They must be as ancient as sewing, but 
steel needles came first to England from Spain 
and Germany; they were first manufactured 
in London by a German in 1565. English 
needles are accounted the best that are made. 



Silk is the production of an insect, the 
Silkworm, sometimes called the “ spinning 
insect.” The Silkworm is subject to trans¬ 
formation. 

What is Transformation? 

It is a change of form or shape. The 
winged Moth, called Bombyx-mori, deposits 
eggs, and leaving them, soon dies. The pa¬ 
rent insect leaves the eggs where the young 


child’s guide to knowledge. Ill 

Larvae may find proper food when hatched, 
and are become Silkworms. 

What are Larvae ? 

The animals called Grubs, Maggots, and 
Caterpillars, are larvae. The larvae of the 
Bombyx-mori is what we call the Silkworm. 
Its proper food is the leaves of the Mulberry 
tree. The insect is said to deposit two hun¬ 
dred eggs. 

How do people obtain Silk? 

They procure the eggs, and keep them in 
a place where they will hatch. When the 
larvae appear they are supplied with fresh 
mulberry leaves every day for about eight 
weeks. Then the worm, full grown, ceases 
to eat, and soon becomes a Chrysalis. 

How is that done? 

He spins from his body a silken fibre, in 
which he gradually rolls himself; then he is 
a Chrysalis. He ceases to eat before he be¬ 
gins spinning, and is furnished with a little 
brush of broom on which to make the cocoon. 
This silken ball thus made is of a yellow color. 
It is about five days in making. 

How long before the Chrysalis comes forth? 

He remains two weeks in a torpid, or 
sleeping state within the cocoon, and then, 
making his way out, appears as the Bombyx- 


112 child’s guide to knowledge. 

mori. He eats through the cocoon, leaving 
the threads of it in short pieces of no value. 

How is the silken thread obtained? 

As it is known by the cultivator of silk¬ 
worms when the Chrysalis will begin to gnaw 
his way out, the Cocoon is thrown into hot 
water before he begins his operation, and the 
Chrysalis is thus scalded to death. After¬ 
wards the silken thread is reeled off, and made 
ready for sale. 

How thick are these fibres? 

They are so light and fine that many are 
reeled together to make the thread, which is 
woven into ribands and piece-silk. The silk 
is divided into coarser and finer. The former 
is Raw silk. Sewing-silk is made of fine 
smooth silk. 

How much silk is taken from one Cocoon? 

The fine fibre, when reeled off, sometimes 
measures three hundred yards. It is said 
that fourteen yards of thin woven silk may 
be made of one pound of prepared thread. 

What is made of Silk ? 

Ribands, stockings, and many kinds of wo¬ 
ven silk, more or less costly and beautiful. 
Silk is dyed of many colors, besides being 
made quite white. Silk is a great luxury, 
making the most elegant apparel for ladies, 


child’s guide to knowledge. 113 

and the richest embellishment of house fur¬ 
niture. 

What is Velvet? 

It is a manufacture of silk. Threads of 
the substance are drawn up from the woven 
web, over its whole surface, and being cut 
and smoothed, the Yelvet has an appearance 
of downy softness and richness; it is used to 
make rich dresses for ladies, and sometimes 
for gentlemen. Ladies often wear bonnets 
made of velvet. 

In what countries are the best silks made? 

The best come from France. In the city 
of Lyons are the largest number of factories. 
In Spain, Italy, and England silks are man¬ 
ufactured. In a certain quarter of London 
called Spitalfields, the best English silks are 
made. 

Was the Silkworm a native of Europe? 

No: Silk is used by the rich all over the 
East; in China, British India, Persia, and 
Turkey. China is supposed to have given 
silk to Europeans. 

How did that happen? 

Two travellers from Europe being in China, 
in the sixth century, procured some eggs of 
the Bombyx, and putting them into a hollow 
cane, brought them to the emperor Justinian, 
10 * 


114 child’s guide to knowledge. 

in Constantinople, and also taught how they 
should be taken care of to produce silk. 

Was this a great service done to Europeans? 

It was, for these silkworms were the pa¬ 
rents of all those which for so many centuries 
have furnished silk to Europe, and now fur¬ 
nish it to us. 

What are bonnets generally made of? 

They are made of silk over a frame of wire 
or buckram, of plaited straw, of Felt, which 
is manufactured of wool stiffened and pressed 
over a block, and of velvet. 

What is a Beaver hat? 

A hat of wtiich the foundation being wool 
and fur, has the outside neatly covered with 
the fine glossy hair of the Beaver, an am¬ 
phibious animal found in Canada. 

What is a Fan? 

An implement designed to be struck against 
the air, in order to agitate or move it quickly 
from the person who uses the fan. The mo¬ 
tion drives off the warm air from the face, 
and allows the cooler air beyond to take its 
place, thus producing the sensation of coolness. 

Of what are fans made? 

They are made often of paper pasted upon 
sticks of wood or ivory. This sort of fan can 
be folded into a small space. They are also 
made of feathers, and of the Palm leaf. Peo- 


child’s guide to knowledge. 115 

pie in the East use fans and Umbrellas; the 
former often to drive away flies, and the latter 
to shield them from the sun. Europeans and 
Americans have adopted these inventions from 
Asia. 


What is Leather ? 

It is the skin of dead animals scraped quite 
clean and fitted for different uses, according 
to the kind of skin. 

To what uses is leather put ? 

Boots, shoes, gloves, saddles, harness for 
horses, and binding for books, are all made of 
leather. The Tanner and Currier, Dresser, 
and many other mechanics, are employed in 
the manufacture of leather. 

What are the Tanner and Currier ? 

The Tanner takes Cow and Ox skins from 
the butcher, and, first rubbing them over with 
lime, puts the Hides, as they are called, into 
pits containing tan-bark pulverized, and water. 

How long are the hides kept in the Vat ? 

When the leather has been long enough 
immersed in the pits or vats to make good 
leather, it may be taken out, dried, and used. 
This is the Tanner’s Craft, or Trade; it is his 
Business. 



116 child’s guide to knowledge. 

What effect has Tanning on leather ? 

The tan-bark is so called because it contains 
a substance called Tannin; the leather, when 
put into the vat, is very soft, and full of pores, 
or little holes. The tan is spread over each 
hide, and water is poured over the whole; the 
hide soon Absorbs or soaks up Tannin. This 
substance changes the quality of the leather. 

How does this process alter the leather ? 

It both shrinks and thickens it; when taken 
out of the vat and dried, the hide is stiffer and 
stronger than before. Tanned leather is used 
for the soles of boots and shoes. 

What is done by the Currier and Dresser ? 

The Currier takes the skin of the smaller 
animals, puts some lime on them, scrapes off 
the hair and all impurities, and then, when 
ready, gives it to the Dresser, who colors it 
and prepares it for the shoemaker or the glove- 
maker. 

What is Chamois Leather ? 

It is the dressed skin of the Chamois, a 
sort of Antelope found in Switzerland. The 
Chamois is a great climber and leaper, and 
lives amid the rocks and mountains of Swit¬ 
zerland. Such is the fleetness of this animal, 
that he easily escapes from his pursuer. 

How is he caught ? 


child’s guide to knowledge. 117 

A party of Hunters join in pursuit of him, 
and often take several animals in one day’s 
chase. Hunting the Chamois, among Alpine 
precipices, which he leaps over with admirable 
agility, is a dangerous pursuit, and many of 
the hunters lose their lives in it. 



Chamois Goat. 


What is the quality of Chamois ? 

When dressed, it is very soft, and, dyed 
black, looks not unlike Velvet. 

What is Russia leather ? 

It is leather brought from Russia, which is 
so dressed that it has a very agreeable odor. 
We use cow-skin, sheep-skin, goat-skin, calf¬ 
skin, and that of some other animals. 



118 child’s guide to knowledge. 

What are Furs ? 

They are skins of animals with the hair 
left upon them. 

Is the use of Fur an ancient practice ? 

Yes; furs contribute greatly to warm people 
in cold countries, and in cold seasons of the 
year. Before men learnt the art of weaving, 
they wore clothing of fur; the Greenlanders 
and Esquimaux make entire garments of seal¬ 
skin fur; they also make their beds and bed¬ 
covers of these skins. 

What are Seals ? 

Amphibious animals found on the coasts 
and in the Pacific Ocean itself, and useful to 
the neighboring natives for great quantities 
of oil which they furnish, and which is burned 
in their dwellings, as well as for the clothing 
they afford. 

What Fur is most valued ? 

That of the Ermine, a little animal not big¬ 
ger than a rat, found in the cold regions of 
Asia and Europe. It is often called “ the 
precious ermine.” The fur is short, smooth, 
and purely white, and is so difficult to obtain 
that it can only be worn by rich persons. 

What are Sable and Martin ? 

They are Russian and North American furs 
from small animals, and make expensive 
muffs. Foxes, Beavers, Raccoons, Rabbits 


child's guide to knowledge. 119 

Hares, and Squirrels afford Furs for inferior 
uses; and the hair of some.of these is em¬ 
ployed in the manufacture of hats. Furs are 
sometimes called Peltry. 


What are the materials used in Sewing and Knitting ? 

They are flaxen thread, white and colored, 
cotton thread, worsted, woollen yarn, and 
sewing silk. Worsted is the stronger and 
longer fibres of wool twisted into a thread¬ 
like form. Worsted is much used in em¬ 
broidery, often called “Worsted Work.” 

What does Worsted Work represent? 

It often imitates flowers, animals, human 
figures, and landscapes. 

What Embroidery is greatly admired ? 

That of the Gobelines, near Paris. This 
Tapestry, as it is called, imitates the finest 
pictures with complete resemblance. It some¬ 
times takes from two to six years to finish a 
piece, so that it is very expensive, and none 
but very rich persons can obtain it. 

Was Tapestry more in use formerly than now ? 

Much more, because in great houses it once 
served the purpose of the colored^ paper we 
put upon walls. Large pieces of tapestry 



120 child’s guide to knowledge. 

were hung upon the walls on hooks prepared 
for them. These were called “ Tenter-Hooks.” 

What was this tapestry often called ? 

It was called the Arras, because some of it 
was manufactured in Arras, a city in Belgium. 
A man could easily conceal himself behind 
the Arras. Worsted, gold thread, and silk of 
various colors were wrought into line tapestry. 

Did great artists make patterns or designs for tapestry ? 

They did. Raphael, a great Italian painter 
in the sixteenth century, made twenty-five 
designs on Scripture subjects to be embroider¬ 
ed for the Pope of Rome. 

Are these in existence ? 

Seven of them are at Hampton Court, a 
palace near London belonging to Victoria, the 
present queen of England : these are known 
as Raphael’s Cartoons; they are regarded as 
works of wonderful beauty: the other Car¬ 
toons, except three, have been destroyed. 

Are Shawls ever embroidered ? 

The famous Cashmere Shawls are very 
elaborately embroidered. 

Where are these shawls made? 

In the valley of Cashmere, a country of 
Asia. The shawls are made from the soft 
hair of the Cashmere goat; these shawls are 
sold in Asia and in Europe to such persons 


child’s guide to knowledge. 121 

as can afford to buy them: some are imported 
to the United States. 

At what prices have these shawls been sold? 

A Cashmere shawl of the richest pattern 
has been sold for fifteen hundred, and for 
two thousand dollars. 

What ornaments are sometimes worn by ladies? 

What are called Gems, or precious stones, 
besides Coral, Carnelian, Jet, Pearls, Amber, 
and wrought Gold and Silver. Gems are 
mineral substances found in mines. They 
are afterwards cut, polished, and set in gold, 
in brooches, ear-rings, finger-rings, buckles, 
and head ornaments. 

Who prepares these stones? 

Being conveyed to different places, from 
Kussia, Hindostan, Brazil, and some other 
countries, they are fitted to be worn by the 
Lapidary and the goldsmith, sometimes called 
the Jeweller. He who works on the stone 
only, is the Lapidary. 

Do Kings and Queens wear jewels ? 

They do. Kings and queens, at certain 
times, wear a sort of wreath on their heads, 
called the Crown; this is composed of Gold 
and Jewels. The jewels kept for their use on 
important days are called the Crown Jewels 
and the Begalia. 


11 


122 child’s guide to knowledge. 

What are the gems most valued? 

The Diamond, Ruby, Emerald, and Sap¬ 
phire ; then the Amethyst, Topaz, and Gar¬ 
net. Some others, as the Beryl and Turquoise, 
are much esteemed. 

What does a diamond resemble ? 

A piece of clear and brilliant white glass; 
but the diamond is much more sparkling, or 
lustrous, than the glass. It is the hardest of 
all natural productions, and has been called 
Adamant. 

Are all gems white? 

They are of different colors; the Ruby is 
dark red, the Emerald green, the Sapphire 
blue, the Amethyst a pale purple, the Topaz 
yellow, the Garnet red, but less valued than 
the ruby, the Beryl light green, and the Tur¬ 
quoise blue. 


Are precious stones very costly? 

Yes; especially the diamond. A diamond 
now in England, brought a few years ago 
from the East Indies, is half as large as a 
hen’s egg, and is valued at above one million 
of dollars. The queen of Portugal and the 
emperor of Russia possess each a diamond 
almost as large. 



child’s glide to knowledge. 123 

What is the common size of Diamonds ? 

One-half the size of a ripe pea is accounted 
a large one; smaller ones vary from that to 
the size of a large pin’s head; some, in hulk 
between these, are frequently seen in neck¬ 
laces and rings. Other gems are of more 
moderate cost than diamonds. 



Corals. 

What is Coral ? 

A substance found in the sea, formed by 
animals called Polypi. These are so numer 
ous as to form what are called Coral Reefs, 
masses of coral lying under water to great 
depth, which vessels may run upon and be 
Wrecked; that is, broken and destroyed. 

What is the color of coral? 

Often it is of a pure white, and puts out 
knotty branches like the wood of a dried 


124 child’s guide to knowledge. 

plant. The kind most used for ornament is 
very hard, smooth, and of a beautiful red 
color. This is often made into beads for 
the necks of infants. The red coral looks 
somewhat like sticks of red sealing-wax. 

Where is coral found? 

In the Mediterranean about Marseilles, Tu¬ 
nis, and Sardinia, and in the Indian Ocean 
near the islands of the Eastern Archipelago. 
Coral reefs sometimes till up harbors by their 
rapid increase. 

What is Carnelian? 

A stone of a reddish color, sometimes pure¬ 
ly red, sometimes quite white, and sometimes 
streaked with different shades of red. The 
carnelian is often made into seals, beautifully 
cut in different figures. A ring containing 
a seal is called a Signet-ring. 

* What do we call a Seal? 

It is some adhesive substance, like Sealing- 
wax, attached to papers containing something 
written, as the seal upon a letter. Upon the 
sealing-wax, while yet soft, is impressed the 
Seal, which leaves the figure cut in itself 
upon the wax. This is* often some design 
or Device, as the figure of a Dove, signifying 
Love and Friendship. 


child’s guide to knowledge. 125 

Are there other uses of Seals ? 

There are. When persons make an agree¬ 
ment concerning some important business with 
others, they cause to be written out what each 
person intends to do in that matter. This is a 
Contract. If land or a house is sold, or given 
by one man to another, the whole business 
of such a sale is written in a paper called a 
Deed. To Contracts and Deeds seals are 
affixed. 

What is that done for? 

To show that the agreement is Concluded, 
or finished, and that it is Valid : that is, that 
it cannot be broken; that the whole transac¬ 
tion is true. 

How is a Signet-ring used? 

In Eastern countries a person who gives 
out written orders, to absent people, stamps 
them with his signet-ring. His signet is 
known as well as himself, and he who bears 
it is received as a true messenger from the 
owner. . 

What are Pearls ? 

They resemble white beads, from the size 
of a pea to a pin’s head, and are set in pins 
and rings. They are found in oysters in cer¬ 
tain places on the coasts of Ceylon, and near 
some of the Pacific islands. 

11 * 


126 child’s guide to knowledge. 

How are these pearls obtained? 

By diving under water for them. The 
pearl-divers tie a strong bag to the waist, 
and plunging down to the oyster-bed, tear 
up oysters as quickly as possible, and rise 
above the water to deliver them to persons 
in waiting. 

How does the Diver live under water? 

He learns to stop his breath for two or 
three minutes. This diving is done at a 
particular season by great numbers of very 
poor persons. 

When are the pearls taken from the oyster? 

The oysters are put in pits in the ground, 
and, being covered over, are left to decay. 
Some months after, the shells and all remains 
of the oysters are carefully picked over, and 
the pearls are taken out. 

What is mother-of-pearl? 

The smooth, glossy inside of a sea-shell, 
taken off in pieces, which are inlaid in boxes 
and other works in Papier Mache. 


What is Jet? 

A hard species of Coal. It is perfectly 
black, and takes a fine polish. It is very 
brilliant, and is worn for ornaments by per- 



child’s guide to knowledge. 127 


sons who dress in black. “ Black as jet” is a 
common comparison. Smooth black glass 
ornaments are imitations of Jet, and are 
cheaper. 

What is Amber ? 

This substance is found on the sea-coast, 
especially on the Baltic. It looks like the 
transparent gum which issues from fruit-trees. 
When first found it is rather soft, and is of a 
deep yellow color, but it hardens, and is cut 
into beads for necklaces. When rubbed, it 
emits an agreeable odor. 

Is amber a vegetable, animal, or mineral substance ? 

It is not known to which kingdom of nature 
it belongs. When it incloses a few fibres of 
straw or some delicate insect, amber is most 
valued, because such pieces are very rare. 

Do all people like Ornaments ? 

They do ; the rudest Savages put on feath¬ 
ers, wear bits of shining metal, and paint their 
faces that they may look the better for it; and 
civilized persons wear fine silk, costly jewels, 
expensive shawls, and feathers of foreign 
birds, when they can afford to buy them. 

Is there any Duty concerning dress ? 

Yes; our Apparel should be neat, carefully 
attended to, and be suitable to our age, our 


128 child’s guide to knowledge. 

occupation, and our fortune, not more expen¬ 
sive than we can well afford to pay for. 

What does neat Apparel show ? 

It shows that we take care of ourselves, 
and that we respect ourselves. Neatness and 
cleanliness extend to the person ; a clean skin 
is as needful as clean and proper garments. 
People do not respect us if we do not respect 
ourselves. 

Are some persons foolishly fond of Ornaments ? 

Many are so, and they buy and wear cheap 
imitations of precious stones and of gold and 
silver. These soon tarnish and look very 
mean. A plain dress well made looks far 
better without them. 

What are Cameos ? 

A Cameo, often worn as a brooch, is cut 
upon a stone formed of plates or layers of 
different colors; the upper plate being cut 
away, leaves the figure or design above the 
colored ground beneath. Cameos are often 
very beautiful. 

Is a Cameo cut like a Seal ? 

No; the Seal has its figures hollowed out, 
but when pressed on a soft surface leaves the 
figure raised upon that. The figures on the 
Cameo are raised like those stamped upon 
sealing-wax. 


child’s guide to knowledge. 129 


What is Belief? 

When figures are raised upon a surface, 
they are said to be in Relief, as those on a 
piece of money. The finest cameos are made 
in Rome. 


What feathers or Plumes are worn as ornaments ? 

Those of the Ostrich and the Bird of Para¬ 
dise are the most elegant. The Ostrich is a 
tall bird, so large that a man may ride on his 
back. The Ostrich is found most frequently 
in Africa and Asia. 

Is the Ostrich a fleet bird ? 

It is more fleet with its legs than with its 
wings. The wings are very short compared 
with the size of the bird, and cannot sustain 
its weight, but its strength and speed are ex¬ 
traordinary. 

Of what size are the eggs ? 

About as large as a young infant’s head. 
The parent bird makes a pit in the sand for 
reception of her eggs, raising a bank around 
it as a protection. It is not known how many 
eggs she deposits in the nest, but it is believed 
that one bird does not lay more than ten. 

Does the Ostrich sit on her eggs ? 

She sometimes leaves them to be hatched 



130 child’s guide to knowledge. 

by the sun when the sun’s rays are very hot; 
but in cooler countries she sits on them until 
the young ones are hatched; and if she do 
not, she always watches the nest. The eggs 
are sometimes eaten by travellers, and also by 
the Hottentots, and are good food. 

Who takes care of the little ones ? 

Their own instincts teach them to find their 
proper food, and they need no other care; 
they are gregarious, and keep together. In 
the book of Job it is said by one man to 
another, “ Gavest thou feathers unto the Os¬ 
trich, which leaveth her eggs in the earth, and 
warmeth them in the dust ? She lifteth her¬ 
self up on high, she seorneth the horse and 
his rider.” 

How does she scorn the Horse ? 

She does not fear him; she is more fleet 
than the Horse or the Greyhound; she does 
not fear the hunter, and can only be taken in 
flight by Missile Weapons, that is, by stones 
or by some sharp instrument thrown at her. 

What is she taken for ? 

To obtain the tail-feathers, which, being 
colored and dressed, form plumes for ladies’ 
bonnets, and are much worn in winter. 

What is the Bird of Paradise ? 

An exceedingly beautiful bird found in 


child’s guide to knowledge. 131 

New Guinea and the adjacent islands. Its 
tail-feathers, of a golden yellow richly shaded, 
form a graceful curve ; they bring a high 
price. 

How are the plumes preserved ? 

When the bird is dead, the skin with the 
tail attached to it is carefully drawn off, and 
dried upon a stick in smoke. Sometimes the 
legs and feet are also retained. 

Are these birds gregarious ? 

Yes ; they live in troops in the vast forests 
of those islands : they are migratory birds, 
changing their quarters at certain seasons. 
They love the Teak tree, sheltering in its 
foliage, and feeding on its small fruit. 

Can this bird hear confinement ? 

Yes; it is kept in Aviaries and in Cages in 
China. A traveller once saw one in the island 
of Macao (pronounced Macow) which had 
been so kept for nine years. Its food was in¬ 
sects and rice. 

Do men wear the plumes ? 

Turkish princes and army officers consider 
them a great ornament, pay great prices for 
them, and wear them in their turbans. 

What is a Prince ? 

He is a King’s son, or a member of his 


132 child’s guide to knowledge. 

family, or the owner of some large estate in 
Germany and Italy, and also in Russia. 

What is an Aviary ? 

It is a house or inclosure in which foreign 
birds are kept to gratify the curiosity of the 
owner, and sometimes of the Public. 


What articles are especially necessary to keep the person 
clean and comfortable? 

Combs, brushes, soap, and sponge. 

Are combs of different sorts? 

They are. There are fine-combs, made of 
Ivory, to clean the hair; horn combs, to dis¬ 
entangle and smooth it; and combs of horn, 
and of Tortoise-shell, to keep it in convenient 
form on the head of females. 

What is Ivory? 

The substance of Elephants’ tusks or teeth. 
The teeth of the walrus also affords Ivory. 
Ivory may be beautifully carved; it makes 
knife-handles, combs, fan-sticks, the staff of 
parasols, paper-knives, and many other useful 
and pretty things. 

Where are Elephants found? 

In Asia and Africa, and in the island of 
Ceylon. Great numbers of them are taken 
for their ivory tusks, and for the service of 



child’s guide to knowledge. 133 

man. Ivory has been in great esteem for 
many centuries. The Greeks and Romans 
made use of it. 

What are Fossil elephants? 

Such as have been buried in the earth for 
ages, and are disinterred. The tusks of the 
fossil elephant do not afford ivory so white 
and pure as those of one recently killed. 
Fossil tusks are found in the northern parts 
of Siberia, and are much wrought in Russia. 

Do other fossil remains exist in Siberia? 

Those of the Mammoth have been found. 
The Structure of this immense animal resem¬ 
bled that of the elephant, but the species is 
now Extinct, or not living. The Mammoth 
and Elephant belong to the graminivorous 
tribe of animals. An elephant in a rice-field 
is very destructive. 

Can -wild elephants be tamed? 

Yes; they are taken with a sort of trap, 
made of beams or great bars of wood. When 
one unwarily enters this, a bar falls and shuts 
him in. 

How does he like this ? 

The elephant, male or female, at first makes 
a great noise, and tries to extricate itself, but 
at length is forced to submit. The elephant 
12 


134 child’s guide to knowledge. 

thus taken is fed, attaches himself to his keep¬ 
er, and learns to labor. 

What can he do ? 

He can draw heavy loads, and carry a sort 
of tower on his back for travellers, who often 
take journeys by this mode of conveyance. 

What is the Walrus ? 

The Walrus, also called the Sea-cow, is 
common in the Arctic Ocean, and will attack 
a boat full .of men. He resorts to the icy 
shore, and may sometimes be found asleep 
there. He is a quadruped, though belonging 
properly to the sea. 

Is the Walrus gregarious ? 

He is, and it is said that one out of a herd 
of these animals serves as a sentinel while the 
rest sleep. A sentinel is a Watcher. When 
the flock is alarmed, they precipitate them¬ 
selves into the water to escape from danger. 

For what is the Walrus pursued ? 

For his Oil and his Tusks, or long teeth. 
These point downward and bend inward, and 
are often two feet long. These tusks are 
ivory, and of equal whiteness and durability 
with those of the elephant, and serve the 
same uses. 



child’s guide to knowledge. 135 

What is a Tortoise ? 

The Tortoise belongs to the class called 
Keptiles, and will live both on land and in 
water. A Tortoise is sometimes not bigger 
than one’s hand, but is often much larger. 
He has a small head, four feet, and a tail. 
His whole body is inclosed in two shells, the 
upper and under shell. 

Is he a timid creature ? 

Yes, and when he is alarmed will draw his 
head, feet, and tail into his shells, and close 
them so firmly that no force can open them. 
The upper shell is formed of thirty-seven 
thick scales united together. Inside of this is 
the substance called Tortoise Shell, of Which 
combs, boxes, and sundry articles are made. 
The Tortoise abounds in the Mediterranean 
Islands. 

For what is this animal remarkable ? 

For longevity, or long life; one is known to 
have lived one hundred and twenty years in 
a garden at Lambeth, near London. This 
fact was known by a date cut in the shell 
at a former time, and compared with the 
present. 

Is the Tortoise harmless ? 

He is, feeding on insects and worms, and 
sleeping, during winter, in a hole in the 


136 child’s guide to knowledge. 


ground, which he lines with grass and 
leaves. 


What Brushes are used for purposes of Cleanliness ? 

Tooth-brushes, hair-brushes, nail-brushes, 
and house-brushes of various kinds. Tooth¬ 
brushes have a handle of ivory, or of bone pre¬ 
pared to resemble ivory, with short stiff bris¬ 
tles, that is, hogs’ hair, attached to the end. 
Nail-brushes are larger and stiffer than a 
tooth-brush, but are made of similar materials. 

Are Hair-brushes made of the same material ? 

Not exactly; Hair-bruslies, much larger, 
have a wooden handle which is extended into 
a wider space at the end. Into this part the 
hairs are inserted. 

Is Hair otherwise useful ? 

Horse-hair is woven into a black shining 
cloth, which forms a durable covering for 
chairs and sofas ; and the hair of cows’ tails, 
brought from South America, makes comfort¬ 
able mattresses and cushions. 

What is Soap? 

Soap is made of oils, tallow, or other fat 
boiled with soda or potash. Soap may be 
hard or soft. A little salt put into the soap 
while boiling, makes hard soap. 



child’s guide to knowledge. 137 

Is Soap of only one quality ? 

It is of several kinds, more or less nice. 
Our common brown or bar soap has resin in 
it. Nice soap for shaving is often perfumed. 
Soap is used when water is applied to clean 
the skin. 

Does it clean other things ? 

Soap mixed with water forms Suds; Suds, 
when it contains much soap, throws up, on 
the surface of water, bubbles filled with air, 
called Lather. Clothes which have been worn 
are made clean by washing and rubbing in 
soap and water. 

Does Soap serve many domestic uses ? 

It does, being added to all water used in 
scrubbing floors, and culinary utensils. Culi¬ 
nary signifies belonging to the kitchen and to 
cooking. 

Have all people soap ? 

No; some savage and half-civilized people 
never saw soap. They wash what they wish 
to purify in water alone; but that is less easy 
than to do the same work with the assistance 
of soap. 

What are Alkalies ? 

All Salts are not table-salt, but some other 
substances are called salts. Alkalies are 
salts : they are Soda, Potash, and Ammonia. 
Soda is obtained from common salt, and from 
12 * 


138 child’s guide to knowledge. 

sea-plants. Potash is obtained from burnt 
wood, and Ammonia from animal Remains; 
from substances which have formed parts of 
an animal when living. 

What use is made of Alkalies ? 

Many uses ; one is to neutralize Acids; that 
is, to take the sour taste out of them. Sal- 
iEratus is a preparation of Potash, which put 
into sour dough, will change it so that sweet 
bread may be made of it. 

What is Sponge? 

A soft brown substance which contains 
many pores. When the dry sponge is dipped 
in water, the pores absorb the w T ater and 
Dilate, or swell the sponge to twice its former 
size. It is taken from rocks under water. 

Where is sponge found? 

On all the coasts of the Mediterranean. 
The Sponge is used in bathing, and also in 
Surgery. When blood flows from any wound, 
sponge applied to it absorbs the blood more 
conveniently than other substances. 

Of what does human food consist ? 

Of animal and vegetable products, fre¬ 
quently prepared by cooking: by boiling, 
roasting, broiling, frying, and baking. The 
lower animals eat their food or aliment in a 
natural state. 


child’s guide to knowledge. 139 

Do we use Minerals for sustenance ? 

Common salt is a mineral substance. Some 
minerals are used for medicine in water, or in 
the form of drugs. There are what are called 
Mineral Springs in the earth; the water may 
contain common salt, may run over Lime¬ 
stone, Sulphur, or Iron, and imbibe some of 
these substances. 

Can they be seen in this water ? 

Eo; but they may be tasted. The lime or 
iron is held by the water in solution : that is, 
a small portion of the mineral substance is 
distributed through a large measure of water, 
as a lump of sugar is dissolved in a cup of tea. 

For what are mineral waters used ? 

Sulphur Springs afford relief to rheumatism, 
others to consumptive patients, and some cure 
Cutaneous diseases, that is, diseases of the 
skin. Springs containing Iron are Chaly¬ 
beate. 

What Minerals are used as medicines ? 

Mercury or Quicksilver in certain prepara¬ 
tions, as Calomel and Blue pill. Sulphur and 
Borax are also used as medicines. 

Who prepares medicines ? 

The Druggist, or Apothecary. The art of 
preparing drugs is Pharmacy. The house 
from which medicines are given without pay 
to poor sick persons is a Dispensary. 


140 


child’s guide to knowledge. 


What is the Pharmacopia? 

All medicines together form what is called 
the Pharmacopia. Medicines are Simple or 
Compound; that is, containing but one single 
substance, or composed of several. 



The Poppy. 


What medicines are Narcotics ? 

Those which produce sleep, and which, 
taken in too large a quantity, cause death; 
Opium is the principal narcotic, and is em¬ 
ployed as a medicine to relieve extreme pain. 
One preparation of it is Morphine. 

Is opium used for any other purpose ? 

It possesses the property of Inebriating 
when taken in certain quantities, and is used 
as a Stimulant. A Stimulant is any sub¬ 
stance taken into the mouth by inhaling it, to 


child’s guide to knowledge. 141 

make people feel better, as the smoke of a 
cigar ; or into the stomach, by swallowing, as 
brandy, or other spirits, and Opium, which in 
the liquid form is Laudanum. 

Are Stimulants wholesome ? 

No, except in certain cases, and moderately 
used, they are injurious. Stimulants are taken 
to produce an agreeable sensation; to make 
the consumer, as he thinks, more comfortable. 
The use of Stimulants is a bad habit; the more 
one takes the more he wants. 

Of what is Opium made ? 

Of the expressed juice of poppies, from the 
capsule or vessel containing seeds. This juice 
hardens in the air, and is sold in cakes and 
rolls. Opium has a repulsive odor. 

Where is Opium made ? 

In India and in Turkey, and is exported in 
large quantities to China, to Europe, and to the 
United States. The Chinese and the Turks 
consume great quantities of this drug. 

What sort of people use Opium ? 

Both rich and poor. Like the love of spirits, 
the appetite for opium tempts poor people to 
buy it when they can procure money. Per¬ 
sons of better fortune, idle and ignorant, and 
weary because they are idle and ignorant, take 


142 child’s guide to knowledge. 


opium. They shorten their lives by this 
practice. 



Tobacco Plant 


What is Tobacco ? 

It is an herb, a native of Europe, Asia, 
Africa, and America, and may be cultivated 
in gardens and fields. The part used is the 
prepared leaves. 

How is Tobacco prepared ? 

The leaves are plucked at a certain time, 
and dried; they are packed in great hogs¬ 
heads, and then sold by the cultivator to the 
Merchant, and by him to the Manufacturer, 
and by him again to the Trader, who sells it 
once more to the Consumer. 

Who is the Manufacturer ? 

A man who has the tobacco prepared for 


child’s guide to knowledge. 143 

sale. For this purpose some of it is rolled 
into a Kope, called Pigtail, and coiled up for 
use ; or rasped into little fragments and sold 
in small parcels, or rolled into Cigars, while 
another portion is ground into powder, called 
Snutf. 

Who uses these several kinds of tobacco ? 

Sailors and laboring men chew pigtail, other 
persons chew the rasped tobacco, while some 
smoke it from the bowl of a pipe. Cigars are 
smoked by lighting one end while the other 
end is in the mouth of the smoker. 

Where are the best Cigars produced ? 

In the Island of Cuba. These, usually 
called Havana cigars, are sold at high prices; 
though some kinds are dearer than others. 
The cigars next in favor to the Havana, are 
those from Manilla. There an immense quan¬ 
tity is made annually. 

What is a Cigar? 

It is made of tobacco leaves rolled into a 
convenient form for smoking. Good cigars 
have a fragrant, or agreeable odor. 

Where is tobacco cultivated ? 

In Syria, and in the Philippine Islands 
The largest produce of it is in the American 
State of Yirginia. It is also grown in Bel¬ 
gium, Holland, France, Southern Bussia, Tur- 


144 child’s guide to knowledge. 

key, and Prussia. The Dutch and Germans 
are fond of smoking the pipe. They have 
ornamented pipes, often elegantly painted. 
This pipe is the Meerschaum. The Turks 
also indulge in smoking, and in elegant pipes. 

Has tobacco always been known to Europeans ? 

No; the discoverers of America, about the 
beginning of the sixteenth century, learned to 
smoke of the natives, and afterwards taught 
the practice in Spain and Portugal. Tobacco 
was soon cultivated by the Spanish settlers in 
the West Indies, and exported to Europe. 

Who first introduced it in England? 

The companions of Sir Walter Raleigh, who 
went on his expeditions to the new world, first 
introduced tobacco in England, where it soon 
came into use, and has continued to be used 
to the present time. 

When did the Virginians first begin to cultivate tobacco ? 

The first settlers colonized Yirginia in 1606, 
and in 1615 they began the culture and ex¬ 
portation of tobacco. 

For what is Snuff taken ? 

In order to produce an agreeable titillation 
in the nerves of the brain. Snuff often causes 
sneezing, and is sometimes given to have this 
effect. Snuff is frequently perfumed. 

What is a Perfume ? 


child’s guide to knowledge. 145 

A perfume is the odorous part of flowers, 
extracted in what is called an Essence. This 
is mingled with pure alcohol, and is often used 
as a gentle stimulant, refreshing to languid 
persons. Cologne water, called from the city 
of Cologne on the Rhine, is so made. 

What perfumes are most valued? 

Otto of Roses, more properly Attar, is 
highly valued in the East. Orange flowers 
make an agreeable perfume. Some persons 
scent their handkerchiefs and clothes with 
perfumes. 



What is a Farm ? 

It is a considerable extent of land in the 
country, containing acres, more or less, which 
are cultivated for the use and necessities of 
man. Part of this land is taken for Tillage, 
13 












146 child’s guide to knowledge. 

that is, for Ploughing and Sowing with corn, 
wheat, potatoes, or aught else the farmer wants 
to produce. 

What Animals must be kept on a farm ? 

Horses and oxen to do the work, or serve 
the farmer in ploughing and drawing loads; 
cows to make butter and cheese; and some¬ 
times sheep to furnish the farmer’s family 
•with wool, and swine to make pork. 

How do these animals subsist ? 

The farmer leaves part of his land in grass. 
In summer he turns his cattle into the pasture 
when they are not at work, and there they 
Graze, or eat the grass. The swine are fed 
on the refuse of the dairy and the family. 

How do they feed in winter ? 

The farmer leaves some of his fields until 
the grass is grown tall enough to cut down; it 
is then mown with a sharp scythe, dried, and 
taken in loads to the barn, where it is kept in 
store for the cattle in winter, being in that 
state Hay. 

Is Hay the only food of cattle ? 

Ho ; in summer and winter the farmer gives 
his horses oats ahd sometimes corn, to make 
them strong to labor. He also gives the oxen, 
cows, and sheep Fodder, besides hay in win¬ 
ter, carrots chopped up, and turnips. Cows 


child’s guide to knowledge. 147 

give more and better milk the better they are 
fed. 

What is an Agriculturist ? 

A person who understands farming. The 
farmer often keeps Poultry : Hens, Turkeys, 
Geese, Ducks, Pigeons, and Guinea fowls,- 
to produce young ones, which are excellent eat¬ 
ing ; and the hens, called u barn-door fowls,” to 
lay eggs that are put into cakes and puddings, 
and are eaten boiled, or fried with bacon. 

Is Farming the same in all countries ? 

Ho, the farming must depend on the soil 
and the climate. In Italy or in Carolina one 
might have a rice-farm, or in China a tea- 
farm ; but in England, Ireland, Scotland, and 
in our middle States, we have Grazing and 
Grain farms. 

Is Farming necessary in all countries ? 

Yes: only the rudest savages subsist with¬ 
out Agriculture; they live miserably enough 
by killing wild animals for food, by taking 
fish from the sea or from lakes and rivers, and 
by clothing themselves in skins. 

What other employments have men in civilized society 
besides Agriculture? 

They have trade or Commerce, which is 
buying and selling again what other men 
need. They have also Mechanic Arts, that 
enable people to construct roads and bridges, 


148 child’s guide to knowledge. 

build bouses and ships, work metals, and to 
make all the instruments employed in every 
sort of work. 

How does the Fanner provide for the classes of men em¬ 
ployed in Commerce and Mechanics? 

The Farmer feeds them all, producing grain 
for their bread, meats for their table, milk and 
butter to make other articles of food pala¬ 
table, hay for their horses, and the leather, 
flax, wool, and cotton which serves for their 
clothing. 

What do other classes for the Farmer ? 

The Merchant imports many comfortable 
articles from distant countries for his use, and 
furnishes him with money by buying his pro¬ 
duce. 

What does the Mechanic for the Farmer ? 

The Mechanic makes the Farmer’s tools, 
builds his house and his bam, makes his carts 
and carriages, and also purchases his produce. 
The Laborer, in the house and out of it, assists 
all these. Thus all classes aid and depend 
upon one another. 

What is a Garden ? 

A private garden is a portion of land under 
cultivation, less in extent than a Farm. The 
farm is designed to furnish necessary articles, 
as bread and the flesh of animals, for the food 


child’s guide to knowledge. 149 

of man; while the Garden affords fruits and 
vegetables. 



The Rose. 


What is the first Garden mentioned in History ? 

The Garden of Eden, sometimes called Par¬ 
adise. In this garden our first parents, Adam 
and Eve, w T ere placed, to “ dress and to keep 
it.” From Paradise they were turned out for 
their disobedience to the Creator. 

Where was Eden ? 

In Asia; but its Site is not known. Man 
must now make his own gardens by his labor; 
by “ the sweat of his brow,” as the Scripture 
calls hard work. 

What are Culinary vegetables ? 

Such as are cultivated to be cooked in the 
Kitchen. Gardens containing only such are 
often called Kitchen Gardens. Gardens which 
13* 


150 child’s guide to knowledge. 

produce many ornamental plants are Flower 
Gardens. 

Are all our Garden vegetables indigenous ? 

Yery few of them. The seeds of many 
have been brought from other countries : the 
summer and winter Squash are natives of this 
country, while the seeds of the Cantelope 
Melon were brought from Persia. 

What are our chief Garden Vegetables ? 

Asparagus, peas, beans, onions, turnips, 
cabbages, cauliflowers, beets, carrots, parsneps, 
salsify, cucumbers, tomatoes, radishes, lettuce, 
and celery; besides herbs, as parsley, sage, 
rue, and sweet marjoram. 

What are the small Fruits cultivated in gardens ? 

Kaspberries, Strawberries, and Gooseber¬ 
ries. The Fruits are Pears, Peaches, Plums, 
Cherries, Apricots, Nectarines, and Quinces. 

What are the principal flowers in our gardens? 

Of the larger early flowering shrubs are 
the Lilac and the Snowball; later in the 
season, is the Althea. The rose, in all its 
varieties, may be seen in gardens. The 
Crocus and Yiolet, the Tulip and Pansy, the 
Fuschia and the Pink, the Hollyhock and 
Sunflower, with many others in succession, 
until the Asters, in great variety, close the 
season of flowers; except those of the ever- 


child’s guide to knowledge. 151 

blooming Conservatory, which defy the au¬ 
tumn chill and the winter’s cold. 

What did Mr. Wilberforce say of Flowers ? 

He said, “ Flowers are the smiles of 
God’s goodness they abound naturally in 
all countries; every cultivated flower grows 
wild somewhere. 

Is any thing known of the gardens of antiquity? 

Yes; the Persians, Greeks, and Romans 
cultivated flower-gardens. Splendid Gardens 
existed at one time in Rome, which, though 
private property, were open to the public; the 
most celebrated were the gardens of Lucullus. 

What is a Public garden? 

It is a piece of ground in a town or city, 
containing shade-trees, ornamental shrubs, 
and flower-borders; walks beautifully dis¬ 
posed, and seats conveniently arranged for 
the accommodation of visitors. 

What fine public garden is there in Bavaria? 

There is one in Munich, laid out fifty years 
ago by Count Rumford, an American. This 
is called the English Garden. 

Have American citizens any titles like that of Count? 

]STo; but Count Rumford, born and bred 
in Hew Hampshire, Benjamin Thomson, was 
made a count by some German prince to 
whom he rendered useful services. 


152 child’s guide to knowledge. 

What is a Botanic garden? 

It is a garden in which a great variety of 
flowers and plants have been collected from 
different countries. The Garden of Plants 
'' in Paris, Kew Garden, near London, and the 
king of Prussia’s Botanic garden in Berlin, 
are esteemed the best in Europe. 

What may be seen in these gardens ? 

Palms from Asia, and many of the natural 
productions of Mexico, Brazil, New Holland, 
and the Cape of Good Hope. 



A House. 


What is a house? 

It is a habitation for man’s use, either for 
a dwelling, or for some purpose. We speak 
of a dog-house, or a cow-house, but these are 
made by man for the shelter of Domestic 
animals. 

















child’s guide to knowledge. 153 

What is meant by Domestic? 

The word signifies belonging to a house, 
and often to the Household; that is, to the 
family residing in a house. Domestics are 
hired persons who help to do the work of 
the house, and who dwell in it. 

Are there different sorts of houses ? 

Houses belonging to persons richer or 
poorer, are more or less spacious and cost¬ 
ly ; a rich man builds an elegant and ex¬ 
pensive house, while a poorer person dwells 
in a poorer house, though the great house 
and the humbler one may be comfortable 
alike. 

How are different houses described? 

They are, beginning with the largest, Cas¬ 
tles, Town-houses, Country-houses, Cottages, 
Cabins, and Warehouses, which last are stores 
designed as Depositories of goods, besides 
public Edifices. 

Can you name some of these? 

Yes; they are Churches, Court-houses, 
Town-halls, Theatres, Custom-houses, Ex¬ 
changes, and Halls of Legislation, some¬ 
times called Capitols. 

From what was the name Capitol taken? 

From a splendid Temple once existing in 
Rome. The Capitol of the United States is 


154 child’s guide to knowledge. 

in Washington; that of the State of New 
York is in Albany. 

What is the art of building houses ? 

It is Architecture. The man who plans 
a house is the Architect. He thinks first 
how every room, door, window, chimney, and 
closet should be placed, and then draws a 
plan or pattern upon paper, which they who 
build the house must follow exactly. 

What persons work on a House ? 

Carpenters, Masons, Stonecutters, Painters, 
and Laboring men. The carpenter works 
on wood, fitting it to different parts of the 
house; the mason lays the bricks in the 
walls and chimneys; the stonecutter pre¬ 
pares the hearths and chimney-pieces, and 
the laborers dig the cellar, and cart all the 
materials that are put into the building; 
the painter finishes it, by painting the wood¬ 
work of various colors. 

Of what material is the outside of a house ? 

The walls of the house may be built of 
stone, marble, bricks, or wood; and it may 
be roofed with slate, wood, or thatch, which 
is straw made fast upon farm-houses, small 
cottages, and out-houses. Thatch is much 
used in England. Stables, Coach-houses, and 
Barns are out-houses. 


child’s guide to knowledge. 155 

What stone is put into houses? 

Free-stone, sometimes called brown stone, 
gray granite, and marble. All these are dug 
out of the earth, and cut into shapes intended 
to fit one another. A stone house is gener¬ 
ally more expensive than other houses. 

What is Granite? 

It is a very hard stone, forming, in the 
state of rocks$ great part of the mass of the 
Earth; lying often below water and soil, 
and often rising above both. 

What is a Quarry ? 

Any place containing a large extent of 
stone, which is there dug out and conveyed 
away, is called a Quarry. Granite contains 
black, gray, and shining white particles, and 
consists of many minerals united in its sub¬ 
stance. 

What is Marble? 

A stone, consisting of limestone and other 
substances, and, like granite, wrought in 
quarries. It is frequently of a very pure 
white, and may be carved into beautiful 
forms. Marble takes a high polish. 

What parts of a house are of marble ? 

Sometimes the outer walls, but more fre¬ 
quently the hall-floor, the chimney-pieces, 
and mantels. Marble slabs are often put 


156 child’s guide to knowledge. 


upon tables and other articles of house fur¬ 
niture. 


Are there different sorts of Marble ? 

There are many kinds, finer and coarser. 
Marble is purely white, white veined with 
blue, yellow, red, black, and sometimes min¬ 
gled with different tints without any white. 
The purest white marble is 'that of which 
Statues are made ? 



A Statue. 


What is a Statue ? 

It is the form of a man, woman, or child, 
made of marble, iron, or bronze. A very 
small one is a Statuette; that of the head and 
upper part of the person only, is a Bust; sev¬ 
eral figures together are a Group, as a mother 
and children. 





















child’s guide to knowledge. 157 

Are there any Greek statues in existence ? 

There are many in the museums of Rome, 
Naples, and Florence; these are carefully 
preserved, and serve artists for Models, that 
is, for patterns to copy from. 

How have these been preserved ? 

Marble, when sheltered, is not subject to 
Disintegration or Crumbling, but will endure 
as long as time itself; thus statues produced 
thousands of years ago may last as long as 
the world lasts. 

How were many works of art destroyed ? 

They were destroyed, that is, buried in the 
ground, or broken in pieces by ignorant 
people. 

Who allowed such people to destroy them ? 

In the fifth century rude tribes of men over¬ 
run Italy, and took possession of the country, 
killing great numbers of people, depriving 
every owner of his house and lands, and de¬ 
spising and injuring almost every thing beau¬ 
tiful. 

* 

Where did these ravagers come from ? 

They were Goths and other barbarians who 
came from Germany, north of the Alps, and 
from countries further east. 

Do their Descendants live now in Italy? 

They do: they and the posterity of the former 

14: 


158 child’s guide to knowledge. 

Romans are the modern Italians. After many 
years the barbarians began to learn religion 
and civility, and at length came to value what¬ 
ever remained of ancient art, and carefully to 
preserve such remains. 

How were the remains of Grecian art in Greece and the 
neighboring States demolished ? 

Chiefly by the Turks. These were formerly 
a people of Western Asia, who resembled the 
Goths in ferocity and ignorance. These es¬ 
tablished themselves in Constantinople, and in 
all the territories of the Greeks in the fifteenth 
century. 

Was the Greek dominion extensive ? 

Yes, all the coast of Asia Minor, and all the 
coast from the Black Sea to the Adriatic, as 
well as the islands of the Archipelago, were 
inhabited by Greeks, but the Turks by degrees 
seized the whole. 

Were they as destructive as the German tribes ? 

They were far worse, because they never 
desisted from destruction, and have never im¬ 
proved. The Turks are Mahometans, and de¬ 
spise all Christians; so they have no respect 
for our laws and manners, and their religion 
forbids them to make pictures and images. 

What is now the best marble used by the Sculptor ? 

The best Statuary marble is that of Carrara, 


child’s guide to knowledge. 159 

in Italy. The Greeks thought the Parian 
marble, which was brought from the island of 
Paros, the finest. 

Who were the most distinguished of the Greek Sculptors ? 

Phidias and Praxiteles. Phidias was a na¬ 
tive of Athens, and was born, it is supposed, 
nearly five centuries before Christ, (b. c. 480). 
Phidias produced many fine works in marble 
and in bronze. 


What were the principal works of the ancient sculptors ? 

They were images of their gods and god¬ 
desses, groups representing fables which the 
people believed, and embellishments of the 
public buildings. Phidias made two very fa¬ 
mous statues, those of Jupiter and Minerva. 

Who was Jupiter ? 

The Greeks called him the “ Father of Gods 
and Men,” and the “Thunderer.” The Ko- 
mans worshipped Jupiter in like manner. 
Both these nations were Heathens; they did 
not worship the Supreme Deity of the Scrip¬ 
tures, whom both Jews and Christians confess 
to be the only true God. 

Did these people worship many Gods 2 

Yes, their deities were male and female, 
both gods and goddesses. The Athenians 



160 child’s guide to knowledge. 

considered the goddess Minerva as their pe¬ 
culiar guardian, the Tutelary goddess of the 
city and the inhabitants of Athens; the one 
who took care of them especially. 

How did they honor her ? 

By religious services; by prayers addressed 
to her, and by hymns in her praise at an An¬ 
nual * festival which all the people, men, wo¬ 
men, and children, celebrated. 

Where was the statue of Minerva placed ? 

In the great temple of the Parthenon, part 
of which still stands on an eminence in Athens, 
called the Acropolis. This temple was embel¬ 
lished by Reliefs from the hand of Phidias. 

When did Praxiteles live ? 

He lived, it is assumed, about a century 
after Phidias. It is not known that any of 
his works exist at the present time, but it is 
related in history that they were highly es¬ 
teemed by his Contemporaries, and long after 
he was himself no more. 

Are there any Greek marbles in England ? 

Yes: the most famous are in the Brit¬ 
ish Museum in London; these are the Elgin 
and the Xanthian marbles. The Elgin mar¬ 
bles are so called in honor of Lord Elgin, who 
brought them from Greece; the Xanthian 


child’s guide to knowledge. 161 

marbles were procured by Sir George Fel- 
lowes in Asia Minor. 

What is Alabaster ? 

A substance resembling marble, but less 
Opaque and more brittle. It is perfectly 
white, and can be cut into small figures of 
great beauty. It is easily scratched and de¬ 
faced. 

Where is Alabaster found ? 

The finest is found near Yolterra in Tuscany. 
It is cut into forms of great taste and beauty 
in Florence and Leghorn: the vases, boxes, 
and ornamental articles so produced are sent 
for sale to other countries. 

What is Porphyry ? 

It is a fine, hard stone, of beautiful colors, 
found in Egypt, of which obelisks and pillars 
may be made. 

What is an Obelisk ? 

It is a tall, four-sided pillar, mounted on a 
base or Pedestal, and standing on the ground. 
Obelisks in Egypt were generally placed in 
pairs, one on each side of the grand en¬ 
trance of temples and palaces. An obelisk a 
little resembles the spire of a church, but the 
top, or Apex, is not pointed, but cut off. 

Have Egyptian obelisks any Inscription ? 

Some are quite plain, but others have Hiero- 
14* 


162 child’s guide to knowledge. 

glyphics on them. These are figures cut in 
the stone, of birds and various forms, which, 
in the time the obelisks were erected, were un¬ 
derstood to have meaning. 

Are there obelisks in Europe ? 

Only such as have been brought with great 
labor and cost from Egypt. There are eleven 
of these obelisks in Rome, set up in front of 
Churches. They were transported centuries 
ago; the tallest is one hundred and five feet 
in height. 

What is the obelisk of Luxor ? 

It is one standing in the Place de la Con¬ 
corde, a public ground in Paris. It was 
brought from Egypt and set up in 1836, and 
is an interesting monument of antiquity. 


What is Gypsum ? 

Gypsum resembles chalk, but is harder; 
when ground to powder, it is called plaster 
of Paris. It is sometimes scattered over 
fields, to make whatever is sown there grow 
more abundantly. Plaster of Paris is found 
in large masses at Montmartre, a hill near 
Paris. 

Is Gypsum put to many uses ? 

It is the material of which plaster-casts 



child’s guide to knowledge. 163 

are made. Being ground to a fine white 
powder, it is mixed with water like thick 
paste; this mixture is put into moulds, and 
takes the shape of them. The Cast, as the 
figure thus made is called, is then taken 
out and dried. 

What do Plaster-casts represent? 

Sometimes they are busts of men or wo¬ 
men, sometimes whole figures and groups; 
they also represent animals, as the Lion, the 
Deer, or the Dog. Sometimes they are Beliefs. 

What can be learned by means of plaster-casts ? 

They can be moulded after the forms of 
the most beautiful statues in distant coun¬ 
tries, and from these Imitations we can learn 
what such works of art are. 

What are Nature and Art? 

By Nature we understand God’s works 
and God’s laws. It is a law of Nature that 
Day and Night shall succeed each other ; 
God ordered day and night to alternate, and 
they do so. 

What is Art? 

Art is a contrivance of man; first invented 
by his mind, and then executed by his hand. 
What one man invents and performs, others 
imitate. Arts are divided into Useful arts 
and Fine arts. 


164 child’s guide to knowledge. 

What are Useful arts? 

They are those which keep us alive and 
make ns comfortable. Agriculture, cooking, 
weaving, and shoemaking are Useful arts, 
while Music, Painting, and Sculpture are 
Fine arts. 

Are the fine arts Luxuries? 

Luxuries are things elegant and beautiful, 
but not essential to comfort. A house to 
dwell in is Necessary, but pictures on the 
walls are a Luxury. One employed skil¬ 
fully upon the fine arts is an Artist, but a 
person who practises useful arts is an Artisan. 
An Inventor of arts, or of machines, is an 
Artificer. 


What are Bricks ? 

They are little blocks of burnt clay, used 
in the building of walls and houses. The 
soft earth called Clay easily mixes with wa¬ 
ter. When the wetted clay has been well 
mixed, it is shaped in wooden moulds, and 
dried in the open air. 

Are the bricks then fit for use? 

No; they are piled up in heaps, with straw 
laid between each brick. An open space like 
an oven being left below, a fire is kindled and 
kept burning until the bricks are quite hard, 



child’s glide to knowledge. 165 

and of a red color. They are then ready to 
be used. 

Are bricks very ancient? 

They are : we read in the Bible that the 
Israelites in Egypt, fifteen centuries before 
Christ, could not make bricks without straw. 
Very ancient bricks are brought from the site 
of ancient Babylon. They were made of a soft 
earthy substance, called Bitumen, and dried in 
the sun; these bricks are of a yellowish color. 

What is Lime? 

It is a mineral substance, called, in Latin, 
Calx. The English word Calcareous, which 
signifies containing Lime, is taken from calx. 
Chalk is a calcareous substance. 

Is the Lime used by the mason in a natural state? 

ISTo ; limestone taken from the earth con¬ 
tains carbonic acid gas, and must be burned 
like bricks, in what is called a Kiln, to expel 
the gas: it is then lime, and is Caustic; that 
is, if touched by the hands it will injure the 
skin, and create soreness. 

What effect has Water on Lime? 

When cold water is poured upon lime it 
begins to Effervesce, or throw up bubbles, 
and with them heat. This process is Slaking. 
Lime must be slaked before it can be made 
into mortar or Whitewash. 


166 child’s guide to knowledge. 

What is the crust often formed inside of tea-kettles ? 

The water boiled in the kettle sometimes 
contains lime, which is deposited and en¬ 
crusts the kettle. Lime, much diluted with 
water, is given as a medicine. Lime is con¬ 
tained in bones, and in egg and oyster shells. 


What is Mortar ? 

It is a mixture of lime and water, used 
to cement bricks and stones, as Glue is used 
to join pieces of wood. The mortar hardens 
and keeps the wall entire. Mortar, formed 
into plaster, contains sand. 

What is Glue made of? 

It is made of a substance called Gelatin, 
commonly called Jelly. If the bones, skin, 
and hoofs of cattle be boiled in water, gelatin 
may be extracted, and when cooled becomes 
moderately solid. 

Is Jelly wholesome food? 

Yes ; the jelly of calves’ feet, with addition 
of sugar, and some wine and lemon to flavor 
it, is good eating. The inferior gelatin, made 
from skins and hoofs, is only fit for glue. 
Glue, bought in thin sheets, must be Dis¬ 
solved, by boiling in water, before it will 
cement wood. 



child’s guide to knowledge. 167 

What is one of the most important articles in a house ? 

Glass. Glass is artificially made; it is a 
transparent substance, freely admitting light, 
and excluding air and water; it therefore 
forms excellent window-panes. 

What did people do without Glass windows ? 

Savages in their poor dwellings have no 
glass windows at the present time; and, in 
hot countries, openings without glass let in 
air and light, but it is supposed that plates 
of semi-transparent horn served to let it into 
some houses. The grandest houses of Greeks 
and Romans had no glass windows. 

Is the manufacture of Glass modern ? 

No; glass was known to the ancients, but 
not glass windows. Glass beads and cups 
have been found among very ancient remains. 
In the seventh century glass was brought from 
France,' or Belgium, to England, for the win¬ 
dows of a new church. 

Was not glass then adopted for house-windows ? 

No, not until the middle of the sixteenth 
century, about three hundred years ago. The 
panes were then diamond-shaped, and about 
five inches in length. They were joined by 
strips of lead. 

Can glass be stained with different colors ? 

Yes; formerly glass windows were painted 


168 child’s guide to knowledge. 

for churches, with beautiful designs. They 
may still be seen in the churches and great 
Cathedrals of the continent of Europe, and 
also in England. 

Are there many kinds of Glass ? • 

There are five distinct kinds of glass : flint 
glass, or crystal; crown glass; common win¬ 
dow glass ; bottle, or green glass; and flint 
glass. Glass is incorruptible, and may be 
kept without decay for centuries. 

Will glass melt ? 

It will, and thus the liquid glass may be 
moulded into different forms. Liquid glass 
can be drawn to a thread, curled into ringlets 
like hair, and woven like flax or cotton. 

Is the finest glass moulded ? 

No. The handsomest glass, that used for 
the best kind of tumblers and decanters, is cut 
into different figures, not with a knife, but 
with what is called a Glazier’s Diamond. 

Is glass manufactured in this country ? 

It is, in large buildings called Glass-houses. 
The different sorts of glass contain different 
ingredients, the principal of which are fine 
sand and an alkali, either potash or soda. 

How is the soda obtained? 

It was formerly procured from the ashes of 
Kelp or Barilla, a marine weed, but as it is 


child’s guide to knowledge. 169 

afforded abundantly by common salt, that ma¬ 
terial is now generally used for tbe production 
of soda. 

Is glass used for other purposes than windows and drink¬ 
ing vessels ? 

Yes, for mirrors and for optical glasses. A 
Mirror is any polished surface that reflects 
light; there may be mirrors of steel or of 
brass, but in these days glass mirrors are used. 

How are looking-glasses made ? 

A plate of glass, larger or smaller, is rubbed 
over on one side with a preparation of Mer¬ 
cury and Tin, the two substances forming what 
is called an Amalgam. This adheres to the 
surface of the plate, and prevents the light 
from passing through it. The light turned 
back reflects the forms of objects before the 
glass. 

Where were glass mirrors first made ? 

In Venice, of very fine glass. They were 
at first small, with a handle, and for the es¬ 
pecial use of ladies. In the sixteenth century 
a looking-glass was unknown in a cottage; 
only the rich had the use of them. 

Are they now generally used ? 

Yes, everywhere, and are a great conve¬ 
nience. Mirrors of eight feet square, or larger, 
may now be seen in fine houses, and those of 
smaller size in all houses. 

15 


170 child’s guide to knowledge. 

What are Optical glasses ? 

Such as are used to assist sight, or Yision. 
These are Spectacles, or reading glasses; the 
Telescope, which magnifies distant objects, 
seeming to bring them nearer to the eye; and 
the Microscope, which makes minute objects 
appear larger; some, which are invisible to the 
naked eye, are, by means of it, made apparent. 

What is a Telescope? 

A Telescope is a series of glasses placed in 
brass tubes, sliding one within another, so as 
to be shortened and lengthened to suit the ob¬ 
server’s eye. The larger telescopes are em¬ 
ployed to observe the heavenly bodies. 

Where were Telescopes invented ? 

It is supposed that Holland claims the honor 
of this invention. One Zachariah, an optician, 
perceiving that objects seen through several 
spectacle glass were increased in magnitude, 
constructed a telescope twelve inches long, in 
the year 1590. 

Was this a perfect instrument ? 

Ho, it admitted of great improvement. Gal¬ 
ileo, an eminent Florentine astronomer, con¬ 
structed a telescope of greater power. 

Where did Galileo die ? 

He died in a delightful place called Arcetri, 
near Florence, in 1639. There he tended his 


child’s guide to knowledge. 171 

vines, sang sweet songs, and watched the stars 
until he became quite blind. 

Have telescopes since Galileo’s time been still better con¬ 
structed ? 

They have. Dr. Herschel, a German as¬ 
tronomer residing in England about the be¬ 
ginning of this century, constructed a tele¬ 
scope which revealed stars never seen before ; 
and one of much greater power has been made 
in Ireland by Lord Eosse, who is now living. 

What is an Observatory? 

It is a building placed on an eminence de¬ 
signed to hold a Telescope for the use of those 
who wish to inspect the Heavens. The most 
powerful telescopes are so large as to require 
a spacious and lofty room. 

What is a Microscope ? 

It is a glass instrument, so small as to be 
placed in the hand. It magnifies very minute 
objects. In a drop of water, seen through a 
very fine microscope, will be perceived a num¬ 
ber of snake-like animalcule, living creatures, 
which are' commonly called Infusoria. One 
sort called the Splar Microscope, when placed 
in the sun, is a magnifier of immense power. 

What are Spectacles ? 

Glasses fitted to the form of the eye, placed 
in a frame of gold, silver, or steel, and worn 


172 child’s guide to knowledge. 

upon the face with design to assist Yision. 
Many persons who cannot see to read or write 
without spectacles, by the aid of them are 
enabled to perform whatever they might do 
’with the best sight. 

Are Spectacles an ancient invention ? 

It is supposed that they were first contrived 
and made in the thirteenth century, about five 
hundred years ago. 

What did people do -without them? 

They were obliged to others, who could see 
well, to do for them what they could not do 
for themselves. Reading and writing, though 
known and practised by a few persons, were 
not known to many in Europe before the six¬ 
teenth century. 

Why was that ? 

They had no printed books, and written ones 
were very rare. 


Besides the Stone, Bricks, and Glass in a house, are other 
materials needed to complete it? 

Yes ; wood for the beams, floor, doors, win¬ 
dow-frames, and window-shutters and shades. 

What kinds of wood are used for these ? 

That of the pine-tree, hewn into beams, 
sawed into boards, and fitted into shape by 



child’s guide to knowledge. 173 

the carpenter. Other woods, as cedar, black- 
walnut, and oak, sometimes make the orna¬ 
mental parts of a house. 

What is Slate-stone ? 

The same sort of stone as makes the slates 
used at school. For these slates the stone is 
made smooth, and framed; but the same 
stone, cut in squares and less smooth, is at¬ 
tached to roofs of houses. 

Why is slate so used ? 

Because it is not liable to take fire, and 
protects the roof from sparks. Plates of zinc 
or of tin sometimes cover roofs. 

What completes a house ? 

Hinges for doors and shutters, locks to 
fasten the doors, painting the wood-work, and 
sometimes papering the walls. A House often 
has belonging to it a Stable for Horses, and a 
Carriage-house. 

How is a house Inclosed? 

In towns, one house is often inclosed on 
two sides by other houses, with a yard behind; 
but in the country, where there is more space, 
a house and the grounds belonging to it are 
usually surrounded by a wall, fence, or Hedge, 
and is entered through Gates and Avenues. 

What is a Lawn ? 

A level piece of land, or a gentle descent in 
15* 


174 child’s guide to knowledge. 

front or rear of a country house, kept quite 
smooth, free from stones and any disfigure¬ 
ment. 

What is a Hedge ? 

A Hedge is a continued row of shrubs or 
bushes serving the use of a fence. The Hedge 
is often made of Hawthorn, and cut off evenly 
all along the top part. The Hedge borders 
fields and house-grounds. 

What are our Tables, Chairs, and Bedsteads made of ? 

Of different kinds of wood, dearer or 
cheaper, as Ebony, Rosewood, Mahogany, 
Black-Walnut, and other cheaper wood, stain¬ 
ed and painted. 

What is Ebony ? 

It is an exceedingly black and hard-grained 
wood, susceptible of high polish. Ebony is 
very rare, being the production of the islands 
of Ceylon and Madagascar, and is valued so 
much as often to be imitated. “ As black as 
Ebony” is a common comparison. 

Wliat is Kosewood ? 

It is a beautiful wood of a dark color, much 
used by cabinet-makers for elegant furniture. 
It is brought from Jamaica and Brazil. 

What is Mahogany ? 

It is the wood of a magnificent tree which 
flourishes in Honduras, and in the West India 


child’s guide to knowledge. 175 

Islands. Much of this wood is imported to 
the United States, and made into house furni¬ 
ture. 

Is Mahogany much valued ? 

It is, but it is not so abundant as it once 
was : so the sawer of it often cuts it into thin 
sheets; these, cut into form, are afterwards 
glued upon a surface of pine or some cheap 
wood. This process is called Veneering. 

How long have these woods been used in Europe ? 

Only since the discovery of America in 
1492. Before that time, carved and uncarved 
oak served for furniture. 

What is Cedar ? 

The beautiful red wood of the cedar-tree. 
The most famous cedar is the Cedar of Leba¬ 
non, in Asiatic Turkey. These trees are men¬ 
tioned in the Bible, and still flourish in that 
region. We have the Cedar. 

What are some of its uses ? 

The Cedar belongs to the Fir family, of 
which the Pine and Larch trees are members; 
it makes excellent posts for fences, being less 
corruptible than many woods. 

Has Cedar an agreeable scent ? 

The odor of it lasts for years, and when 
used for the bottom of drawers, or for shelves, 
communicates an agreeable smell to linen. 


176 child’s guide to knowledge. 

What is Black-Walnut ? 

A nut-tree found in these States. It is not 
black, but of a blackish-brown color. The 
Cabinet-maker manufactures these woods, and 
the Carver often cuts them into ornaments 
upon different articles. 

Of what are Beds made ? 

Mattresses are stuffed with hair, and soft 
beds and pillows with Feathers. These are 
principally stuffed with goose feathers. The 
geese in summer shed their feathers, and 
while they are loose the farmer plucks the 
feathers, sometimes hurting the poor birds, 
but leaving them a moderate covering. 

Do the feathers grow again ? 

They do; every year birds Moult, that is, 
at a particular time of the year they lose their 
feathers, the old being succeeded by new ones, 
like a new garment. 

Are goose-feathers otherwise useful ? 

Yes; the long feathers of the wings being 
prepared, will make pens. Quill pens were 
formerly used entirely, but the invention of 
metallic pens, of gold, silver, and steel, has 
taken the place of them. 

What is Down? 

A soft feathery substance found on the 
breast of birds near the skin. The skin of the 


child’s guide to knowledge. 177 

wild Swan is sometimes dressed with the 
down npon it, and is made into very pretty 
muffs. 

Where does the wild Swan abound ? 

In the northern parts of Europe and Asia,- 
from which the down is exported to more 
southern countries. 

What is Eider-down ? 

It is fine down from the breast of the Eider- 
duck, a wild duck which resorts to the Shet¬ 
land and Orkney Islands. These birds in 
great numbers make their nests upon cliffs on 
the sea-coast. 

How is the Down obtained ? 

The duck plucks her own breast, and lines 
her nest plentifully with the down. From 
these nests it is taken by those who sell it. 

Of what use is it ? 

To stuff muffs, or very soft pillows, or to 
make warm bed-covers. 

Do all people have nice beds ? 

]STo : some are, unhappily, too poor to have 
them ; and some in hot countries lie upon 
mats; while savages repose upon the skins of 
animals taken in hunting. Straw beds may 
be made comfortable in want of better. 



178 child’s guide to knowledge. 

Besides tables, chairs, and beds, of what does house fur¬ 
niture consist? 

Of lamps and candlesticks, of pottery-ware 
and glass for the table, of plate, of knives 
for different purposes, of forks and spoons, 
and cooking utensils. 

Are Lamps often elegant? 

Lamps are intended for reception of oil, 
to be burnt with a wick, and to give light 
in the house; and are more or less costly, 
according to the means of the owner. 

Of what substances are lamps made ? 

Common lamps are made of brass, of glass, 
and of tin lackered over. This lacker is a 
colored paint, of a glossy kind, which is put 
upon iron and tin candlesticks, lamps, and 
tea-trays. 

Are there more expensive lamps and candlesticks? 

Yes, these are often made of bronze, or of 
cast-iron made to resemble bronze; many are 
elegantly formed and gilded. A candelabra 
is a number of sockets, for candles, at the 
end of spreading branches; the branches 
are fixed to a shaft standing on a foot. 

What is Bronze? 

It is a composition of Copper and other 
metal. Bronze is an ancient invention, as 
is proved by remains of antiquity. 


child’s guide to knowledge. 179 

What are Remains of Antiquity? 

Very old things, taken perhaps from the 
bottom of wells, or found in neglected places, 
or disinterred from the earth where they have 
been long buried, or, it may be, that have 
been carefully preserved. 

What are these things generally? 

They are often small things, as lamps, 
drinking-cups, vases or ornamental urns, 
boxes, and even thimbles; besides manu¬ 
script books. 

Where are these tilings kept? 

They abound in Italy; are kept in Pome, 
Naples, Florence, and other cities, in Mu¬ 
seums, where visitors may see them. A mu¬ 
seum is a collection of curious objects, kept 
together in spacious rooms or halls, open to 
the public. 

Where were the greatest number of antique curiosities 
found ? 

In Herculaneum and Pompeii. These cit¬ 
ies, not far from Naples, stood at the foot of 
Mount Vesuvius, and were buried by the 
ashes, lava, and pumice-stone, which were 
poured out upon them by the volcano. 

How long were these cities thus buried? 

Seventeen hundred years, nearly. Hercu¬ 
laneum and Pompeii, overwhelmed about 
A. D. 79, were completely hidden from view, 


180 


child’s guide to knowledge. 



A Yolcano. ■ 


and indeed quite forgotten. They were not 
penetrated until 1713, when certain work¬ 
men digging a well came upon the top of a 
house. 

To what did this discovery lead? 

The King of Naples, forty years after, em¬ 
ployed men to dig into these buried cities, 
and open them. When this was done, with 
great labor and cost, streets, houses, shops, a 
theatre and baths, domestic utensils, and in¬ 
struments of art and industry were found. 

Is not this very interesting? 

Yes, because it informs us in some measure 
how Greeks and Romans lived; that is, what 
sort of dwellings they occupied, what furni¬ 
ture they had, and what instruments of labor 
they used. 









child’s guide to knowledge. 181 

How could Italian people exhibit articles used equally 
by Greeks and Romans? 

Because the southern part of Italy, once 
inhabited solely by Greeks, was at length 
taken by the Romans, and the Italian people 
adopted many things from the former inhab¬ 
itants of that region. 


What Manuscripts are remains of antiquity? 

All the books which we call Classics, works 
of ancient poets and historians, were only 
written before printing was invented. 

What were these manuscripts? 

The books of the Bible, the poems of Ho¬ 
mer and Yirgil, the histories of Livy and 
Tacitus, and many others. These writings 
were preserved during centuries. They are 
now printed books. 

Were many fine statues disinterred in Italy? 

Yes; Michael Angelo tells how a very fa¬ 
mous one was discovered, and seen by him 
when a child. 

Can you relate the account? 

In Rome, about 1540, some statues were 
discovered in a vault long shut up. Michael 
Angelo’s father, with a friend, went to the 
place on horseback. The father took up 
the little boy behind him, and showed him 
16 



182 child’s guide to knowledge. 

the statues. “ It is the Laocoon !” exclaimed 
the friends, when they first beheld one group, 
now disinterred and greatly admired. 

How did they know the group was the Laocoon? 

Because, they had read the narrative of 
the death of Laocoon and his sons in Yirgil’s 
poem, the HCneid. This group may still be 
seen in the museum of the Yatican. 

What is the Vatican? 

It is the name of a hill, a church, and a 
palace, on the left bank of the Tiber, and 
within the walls of modern Home. The Yat¬ 
ican is, in effect, an assemblage of public 
buildings, and in the palace the Pope of 
Pome sometimes resides. 

How is the Vatican divided ? 

Into the Papal palace, the Library, the 
Museum, and the Court and garden of Bel- 
videre. The palace contains the Sistine chap¬ 
el, painted by Michael Angelo, and galleries 
painted by Raphael. These were the most 
eminent painters of the sixteenth century. 

Where is the Museum? 

It is joined to the palace by a covered 
way one thousand feet in length, and contains 
the most beautiful sculptures in the world. 
Half way between the Belvidere and the 
Palace is the entrance to the grand library. 


child’s guide to knowledge. 183 

What does this library contain? 

Besides great numbers of books, it contains 
24,000 manuscripts in Greek, Latin, and in 
oriental languages. Catalogues of all these 
are printed, and persons who wish to examine 
any are sometimes allowed to see them. 

What is the Eight bank of a Eiver? 

When the river is descended, from its 
source or beginning to the mouth, the coun¬ 
try on the right hand is on the Bight bank, 
while that on the left is on the Left bank 
of the river. 

What are Oriental languages? 

Those spoken and written in oriental coun¬ 
tries ; those which lie eastward from Europe, 
as Arabia, Persia, India, and China. 


What is Pottery-ware? 

It is formed of clay and other matters, 
wrought into different shapes, and employed 
for different uses; as plates, tureens, bowls, 
pitchers, cups and saucers, and many other 
articles used in every family. 

What is the finest of this ware? 

It is Porcelain. This is made with a pro¬ 
portion of finely ground flint-stone, mixed 
with the clay, moulded into elegant forms, 



184 child’s guide to knowledge. 

and often gilded and painted before it is 
glazed and baked in a furnace. 

Is Porcelain always so finished? 

ISTot always; statuettes, and other articles 
made of this material, are only baked, with¬ 
out painting or glazing: these are of a pure 
white, and are called Biscuit. 

What is the most beautiful manufacture of porcelain in 
the world? 

That called Sevres China, which is made 
near Paris, and altogether for show and or¬ 
nament. China of great beauty is also made 
in Dresden, in Germany, which is highly 
valued, and only to be procured at great 
cost. 

What is Wedgwood ware? 

It is a species of ware made in England, 
commonly of a blue ground, adorned with 
beautiful figures in relief. These, placed on 
a colored ground, are pure white like a cameo. 
It is made into vases, boxes, candlesticks, and 
pitchers. 

Why is this called Wedgwood ware? 

From the inventor, Josiah Wedgwood, who 
established a manufactory of it in Stafford¬ 
shire, England, in the last century, in a place 
called the Potteries. There many thousand 
men are still employed. 


child’s guide to knowledge. 


185 


Why is porcelain often called China-ware and China? 

Because it appears to have been first made 
and painted for elegant uses in China. Old 
china is much valued by many persons. 

Is pottery-ware used for common purposes? 

Many kinds of it are very useful and cheap, 
as ordinary table ware, bowls, pitchers, and 
tea-cups and saucers; besides pots, pans, jugs, 
and jars of a coarse kind. 

Do the Mexicans excel in this kind of ware ? 

They do; manufacturing such simple ves¬ 
sels as serve for their domestic purposes, in¬ 
cluding cooking. 



A Vase, and Hour Glass. 

What are Vases? 

A vase means a Yessel; that is, a recep¬ 
tacle for any kind of fluid, whether it be made 
of clay, metal, or porcelain: but we use the 
word in a more restricted sense. 

16* 








186 child’s guide to knowledge. 

What does the word Vase commonly signify? 

It means either an urn or a jar, smaller or 
larger, and is kept for flowers, or for ornament. 
Yases are commonly made of painted or un¬ 
painted porcelain; sometimes of marble, or 
alabaster, and also of baked clay. 

What is the chief beauty of a vase ? 

Its form. Ancient vases, of late years, 
have been found in great numbers in Etru¬ 
ria, Southern Italy, Greece, and the Greek 
islands. 

Where are they commonly discovered? 

In burial places; that is, in tombs, or in 
Catacombs, and in places where it is supposed 
they were manufactured. 

Are ancient and modern vases alike? 

The modern are often imitations of ancient 
vases; but modern vases of marble, or ala¬ 
baster, are often adorned with reliefs, cut on 
their surface, in what are called Classic de¬ 
signs. 

■ What are Etruscan vases? 

They are ancient vases, found in Etruria, 
a portion of Italy lying between the Tiber 
and Tuscany. It is supposed that many 
Greeks were settled among the ancient Etru¬ 
rians. The vases are usually painted with 
Greek figures upon them. 


child’s guide to knowledge. 187 

How are th$ ancient Etruscan vases Painted ? 

The ground is often of a deep brick-like red, 
and the forms painted on it are those of men, 
women, and animals; the last are much like 
Egyptian figures of birds, rams, lions, and 
sphinxes, and of black color. 

Were the Greeks known to have Potteries? 

Yes; in a suburb of Athens was a place 
called Ceramicus, because potteries had once 
been there. In Corinth the most beautiful 
Yases and other ware of the sort were made. 

What are Catacombs ? 

They are excavations of the earth of large 
extent, in which great numbers of human 
beings have been buried. Beneath the city 
of Paris, in Kome, and in the island of Malta, 
catacombs are visited by travellers. 


What are the most necessary articles in a house ? 

Utensils employed in cooking, and in clean¬ 
ing the house. Spoons, knives and forks, be¬ 
long to our tables. Cooking utensils are pots, 
pans, ladles, and other articles. Smoothing- 
irons serve to smooth clean linen. 

Of what are these made ? 

Of iron, copper, tin, and brass; besides, 
we use wooden-ware : pails, tubs, and barrels. 



188 child’s guide to knowledge. 

What is a Hogshead? 

It is a wooden vessel made of strips of wood 
called Staves, shaped and hooped like a bar¬ 
rel. A Hogshead contains sixty-three gallons. 

With what do we clean houses ? 

With brooms and brushes we remove the 
dust from floors, walls, and carpets. We 
have also window-brushes and scrubbing- 
brushes. 

Of what are Spoons made ? 

Spoons are commonly made of silver: very 
rich persons have gold spoons; and some, who 
cannot afford silver, use plated, iron, and even 
wooden spoons. 

What is Plated ware ? 

It is first made of copper, as a copper spoon 
or candlestick; then a coating of silver is 
spread over the copper, and by means of an 
Amalgam it is made to adhere to the whole 
surface, making the object appear as if made 
of silver. 

Does the plating last ? 

If it be thin, it soon begins to wear off; but 
if it is sufficiently thick, it may last in use for 
many years. 

What is an Amalgam ? 

It is some substance which is spread over 
the surface of a metal, and then covered by 


child’s guide to knowledge. 189 

another metal, the two metals being thus 
firmly joined together. 

What is Amalgamation ? 

It is the junction and union of two different 
substances, which thus become one mingled 
or combined substance. 

Can you give an example of Amalgamation ? 

Plated spoons and candlesticks are the 
amalgamation of silver and copper, and so 
are the gilt buttons which are worn on men’s 
coats ; the foundation of the button is a cheap 
metal, while its surface is gold. 

What are Knives and Forks? 

They are the implements by which we are 
enabled to take animal food conveniently. 

Of what is a Knife made ? 

A knife, which consists of the Haft, or han¬ 
dle and a Blade, is made of silver or steel. 
Silver knives, which will not take a sharp 
edge, are used for paring and cutting fruit, 
and steel knives for other purposes. 

Are there many sorts of Knives ? 

Yes ; there are table-knives, pen-knives, 
butcher-knives, shoe-knives, and some others. 
These serve different uses and are all Edge-tools. 

What are Edge-tools ? 

They are cutting instruments, and should be 
used carefully. Swords, scythes, and sickles, 


190 child’s guide to knowledge. 

like knives, are edge-tools. Swords are kept, 
for safety, in a case or sheath. 

What is the use of a Sword ? 

It is intended to defend a man. If one 
wicked man should try to kill or strike an¬ 
other, the assaulted person, carrying a sword, 
might with it keep off the assailant. 

What are Forks ? 

They are pointed instruments, which assist 
us in the cutting up and eating of food. 
Common forks are made of pins of steel, 
pointed and set into a handle. Silver forks 
are all of one substance, the handle being 
extended into four or five prongs. 

Are Knives and Forks modern inventions ? 

Swords and knives are very ancient, but 
forks are modern. They were first used in 
England two hundred and fifty years ago, and 
were made of steel. Silver forks have come 
into use in late years. 

Could meat be eaten neatly without forks ? 

No; though instead of them wooden skewers 
were used; but the fingers were often greased 
by pulling apart a piece of meat, and required 
washing directly. 



child’s guide to knowledge. 191 

What are Carpets ? 

Covering for floors, generally of wool woven 
in a loom, and of many colors in various 
figures. Eastern countries are famous for the 
small carpets we call Eugs. 

Wliat are Turkey Carpets ? 

They come from Smyrna, have a long pile, 
and are of many colors and irregular figures. 
Some carpets are woven like velvet, as "Wil¬ 
ton, and others like uncut velvet. Yelvet has 
a short pile, and a hearth-rug one much 
deeper. • 

How are Carpets generally made ? 

The yarn being spun, is dyed of many col¬ 
ors, and twisted ; it is then woven in different 
patterns—many yards to apiece of carpeting. 
When fitted to floors, the figures are joined 
so as to make the carpet appear to be of one 
piece. 

Are there any Carpets without seam ? 

Some small carpets are so woven; and in 
France, very large and expensive ones are 
woven in one piece. 

Are Carpets a modern invention ? 

Covers for the entire floor of large apart¬ 
ments are modern. 

When were Carpets introduced into England ? 

They were first brought from France to 


192 child’s guide to knowledge. 

England in 1745. Carpet manufactories were 
afterwards established there and in Scotland, 
and soon came into general use. 

How are those we use described ? 

As ingrain, the least expensive kind of car¬ 
pet, and Brussels and Wilton, which are more 
expensive. There are also imported some very 
costly French ones. Common carpets of good 
texture and appearance are made in the United 
States. 

Are Carpets much used in France ? 

Much, less than in this country or in Eng¬ 
land. In France and in the rest of Europe 
carpets are known only in rich houses. Tiled 
or oak floors are reckoned to be very conve¬ 
nient and comfortable. 

What are Tiles ? 

A thin smooth sort of bricks made in form 
of diamonds and hexagons, which are laid into 
floors of rooms and passages, and which look 
very well. 

What is Oil-cloth ? 

A piece of canvas stretched is painted in 
many colors and various figures, entirely con¬ 
cealing the canvas. When perfectly dried, 
this is laid upon room and hall floors. 

What is Drugget ? 

It is a thick woollen stuff, stained on the 


child’s guide to knowledge. 193 

surface in various patterns. Being cheaper 
than carpeting, it is often used to cover the 
carpet in order to keep it clean. 

Do poor people use carpets ? 

Only those who can afford them use them. 
A clean board floor is very comfortable. 

Did people cover floors when they had no Carpets ? 

They often strewed their common rooms 
with sand, and in some past times spread 
Bushes upon the floors, renewing them when 
soiled and broken. 


Are Time-pieces kept in houses ? 

They are; these are more or less elegant 
and costly, being made of wood, silver, and 
gold. 

Are Time-measurers very ancient ? 

They are, but not very perfect ones; the 
oldest mentioned in history are the Sun-dial, and 
the Clepsydra, which was used by the Bomans. 

What is meant by the phrase, “ What o’clock is it ?” 

It means, What hour of the day is it as 
shown by the clock ? The space of time be¬ 
tween sunrise and sunset is called a Day, and 
that between sunset and sunrise is a Night. 

How are Day and Night divided ? 

They are divided into twenty-four Hours ; 

17 



194 child’s guide to knowledge. 

each hour into sixty Minutes, and each 
minute into sixty Seconds. Three hundred 
and sixty-five days and six hours make a 
Year. 

In how long time does the Earth move round the Sun ? 

In a year. Every twenty-four hours the 
Sun rises and sets, but not at the same hour; 
every day when the sun is at the highest point 
in the heavens between rising and setting, it 
is Hoon. 

Why is that hour called the Meridian ? 

Because the Sun is in the middle of his 
course. The sun does not move, but the earth 
moves. We have rolled round into his light 
when the Sun seems to rise; we have rolled 
away from his rays when he appears to have 
departed from us. 

Can you understand that ? 

Yes: when I turn from the light I cannot 
see it, it does not shine upon my face; but 
when I turn round towards it, I see it plainly ; 
just so when we on our side of the earth are 
turned from the Sun, we do not see his light, 
he appears to have gone from us ; when we are 
again turned to him, we see his light once 
more. 

What is the Horizon ? 

It is that part of the heavens which seems, 


CHILD’S GUIDE TO KNOWLEDGE. 


195 


in a circle around us, to meet the earth. The 
rising sun comes into view at the Horizon at 
sunrise, seems to mount during several hours 
to noon-time, or to the meridian, and then de¬ 
scends to the horizon and disappears. 

Wliat is meant by Points of the Compass ? 

What we call East, West, Horth, and 
South, which are properly points in the Sky, 
or Heavens. 

Does the Sun rise in the East ? 

The Sun rises exactly in the East and sets 
in the West only on two days in a year ; these 
are called the Equinoxes; the two days are 
the twentieth of March and the twentieth of 
September. 

How are the Equinoxes distinguished ? 

That of the Spring is called the Yernal 
Equinox, and that of the autumn the Au¬ 
tumnal Equinox. The days and nights are 
at those seasons each twelve hours long. The 
Sun, from March twentieth to June twentieth, 
rises earlier and earlier, more towards the 
south, giving more hours to the day, and set¬ 
ting further to the north of East. The twen¬ 
tieth of June is called the Summer Solstice, 
but from that day the sun rises and sets at a 
later hour. 


196 child’s guide to knowledge. 


Wliat is the Winter Solstice ? 

The twenty-first of December; that is, the 
shortest day in the year. After that day the 
sun rises earlier and earlier, and the days be¬ 
come longer and longer, until the Summer 
Solstice. 


What is a Sun-dial ? 

It is a piece of metal marked with the 
twelve hours of the day like a watch-face, and 
set fast on a post where the sun’s rays will 
fall on it from rising to setting. 



Sun-dial. 


How is the hour of the day shown by the Dial ? 

Into the face, or plate, a piece of metal of a 
triangular shape is so fixed, that when the sun 










child’s guide to knowledge. 197 

shines the shadow falls exactly on the figure, 
expressing the hour: as the sun moves, or 
seems to move, the shadow passes from one 
hour to another. 

What is the Index, or Time-shower, called ? 

It is called the Gnomon. An Index is a 
Pointer, that instrument which Indicates or 
shows something. The minute and hour 
hands of a clock are the Indices of the time 
of the day. 

What was the Clepsydra ? 

It was called a Water-clock: water was 
placed in a vessel with a small hole in the 
bottom ; through this the water within the 
vessel ran slowly into one beneath. 

How did that show the hour ? 

It did not show it exactly unless filled at 
the Meridian hour. The inside of the water- 
vessel was marked at different distances ; the 
water would sink gradually from mark to 
mark. 

How was the hour counted ? 

If the water sunk from one mark to the next 
in ten minutes, the distance between the 
marks being alike, it would fall to another 
mark in ten minutes more, which, added to 
the former fall, would make twenty minutes. 
Thus the outflow of the water would show 
17 * 


198 


child’s guide to knowledge. 


how much time had elapsed since it began to 
fall. 

Did the Clepsydra resemble an Hour-glass ? 

It did: only in the Hour-glass Sand is used 
instead of water. The Romans used the 
Clepsydra. 

When were modem Clocks invented ? 

The Italian poet, Dante, mentions the strik¬ 
ing of a clock; he died in 1321, therefore 
clocks might have been in use in the thirteenth 
century. A public clock is known to have 
been placed near Westminster Hall, London, 
in 1288. 

Is any thing known of the first Clock-maker, or In¬ 
ventor ? 

Nothing whatever; the first watches were 
made in Nuremberg, in Germany, and were 
much larger than those in present use. They 
were sometimes known as Nuremberg eggs. 

What are the principal parts of a Clock ? 

The Wheels and the Spring within; the 
Pendulum, the Dial or face, the Index, the 
Crystal, and the Case. The Dial is often of 
white porcelain, with figures upon it, at equal 
distances, representing the hours from one to 
twelve, and the minutes also. 

What is the Watch-case ? 

It is the receptacle of the other parts of the 


child’s guide to knowledge. 


199 


watch, and is either of gold, silver, or some 
inferior metal gilt. The face is covered with 
the crystal, made of glass in a convex form, 
which shuts into the case. 

Will the Clock and Watch keep in motion without any 
operation to produce such effect ? 

No : a Time-piece contains a spring wound 
round a cylinder which is uncoiled in a cer¬ 
tain number of hours or days, if the watch is 
in motion. This must be wound anew to con¬ 
tinue the motion of the clock or watch. 

How is this done ? 

By means of a little instrument called a 
clock or watch Key. 

Are there a great variety of Clocks ? 

The construction of all is nearly the same. 
Some are made with more care than others, 
and some are more elegantly ornamented. 
The people of the United States use wooden 
clocks, so cheaply made that all can possess 
one. 

What science is employed in Watch and Clock making ? 

It is called Horology, and the Clock-maker 
is an Horologer. Chaucer, an English poet, 
called a Clock an “ Orloge,” nearly five hun¬ 
dred years ago. 

Where are the best Clocks and Watches made ? 

In France, and in Switzerland, at Geneva; 


200 child’s guide to knowledge. 

thousands of these Clocks and "Watches are 
imported into this country every year. 

Where did our Wooden Clocks originate ? 

In the State of Connecticut, and were first 
carried about by Itinerant traders, that is, by 
persons journeying from place to place. 

What is a Chronometer ? 

It is a very accurate and expensive Time¬ 
piece, carried to sea in ships. 



Were you ever in a blacksmith’s shop? 

I have looked into one to see a horse shod, 
and to see the smith make his iron shoes. 

What else did you see? 

I saw the furnace, and the bituminous 
coal burnt in it; the great bellows, with 
which the furnace fire was blown up; the 
iron rod, or bar, which was heated red-hot 














child's guide to knowledge. 


201 


to make the shoe; the anvil, or iron block, 
on which the iron was beaten; the beating 
into shape, the quenching the shoe to make 
it hard, and the boring of holes in it to nail 
upon the horse’s hoof. 

Where did the iron come from? 

Out of the earth. Iron belongs to the 
mineral substances called Metals. 

How many Metals are there? 

The Chemists reckon forty-three metals, 
but only a portion of these are commonly 
known. Almost all metals may be treated, 
in some measure, like iron, to make them 
useful. 

Do you know a metal from a stone? 

A metal may be distinguished from a 
stone by its Peculiar properties; that is, by 
qualities which belong to metals and not to 
other things. 

What are some Metallic properties? 

Brilliancy, or brightness, when polished. 
Glass, like polished steel, is brilliant, or 
shining; but glass is Transparent, while 
metals are Opaque. While a pane of glass 
would let in light, a pane of tin would ex¬ 
clude it. 

Are metals heavier than stone? 

They are the heaviest of all substances. 


202 


child’s guide to knowledge. 


Are metals brittle? 

A stone, beaten with a strong hammer, 
called a Sledge, will fly into many frag¬ 
ments : the stone is Brittle. A piece of 
metal, when beaten, spreads under the ham¬ 
mer. 

What is that softness of the metal called? 

Its Malleability. A piece of gold may be 
spread out to a leaf thinner than the thin¬ 
nest paper. 

What is Ductility? 

It is the property of being drawn out to 
Wire, like a thread, as the bell-wire. When 
a mass of metal, with a proper instrument, 
is drawn out to wire, it does not break off, 
but one part adheres to another all along 
the line. 

What is this property of holding together called ? 

Cohesion, or Tenacity. If this property 
did not exist in bodies they would fall apart 
like sand or meal, without taking any form 
whatever. 

What is Fusibility? 

It is capability of being melted. Placed 
over a sufficiently powerful fire, a solid 
metal becomes fluid: it is melted, and may 
be turned into a mould, taking the form of 
it when cooled. 


child’s guide to knowledge. 203 

Why does not the melted metal melt the mould? 

Because the mould is either made of Clay 
or of Platinum, which cannot be affected 
with the heat of fluid metal. 

How can you sum up the character of a metal? 

It is a heavy, opaque, brilliant, malleable, 
ductile, and fusible mineral. 

In what condition is a metal found in the earth? 

In the state of an Ore. An ore is a mix¬ 
ture of soil, stones, and any metal they may 
be combined with. 

How is the metal detected in the ore? 

Metals having once been discovered in 
any place, Miners dig there for more, and 
soon learn if the earth dug into contains 
iron, gold, or any other metal. The place in 
the earth containing metals is a mine. 

When the ore is dug up, how is the metal obtained 
from it? 

By many processes: chiefly by fire, which 
separates the metal from other substances, 
and makes some into bars, and the most 
valuable into squares or oblong pieces, of a 
certain weight, called Ingots. 


What science comprehends the knowledge of Metals? 

Mineralogy. The Mineralogist not only 
understands the nature of metals, but of all 



204 child’s guide to knowledge. 

known minerals; the coal burnt in our grates; 
the rocks that lie around our dwellings, and 
often contributing to make them; and the 
ores, which, being purified, furnish both our 
necessaries and luxuries. 

Who understands the working of Metals? 

The Metallurgist. He can assay or prove 
the quality of metals, and show whether they 
are Adulterated; that is, mixed with any in¬ 
ferior metal; as whether an ounce or two 
of lead is mixed with a pound of silver. 

Does owning a Mine make a man rich? 

All mines cost much to work them: many 
laborers must be employed and paid to dig 
the ore, and to refine the metal; and the 
mine may be far from any place of sale, so 
that the metal must be transported at great 
expense. 

What effect has this outlay of money? 

When the metal is sold, all which it has 
cost must be taken out of what the purchaser 
pays for it. What is paid out is taken from 
the Profit of the mine-owner. If the profit be 
large, the owner of the mine will be rich. 

Can you enumerate the chief metals ? 

I can: they are Gold, Silver, Copper, Iron, 
Lead, Tin, Quicksilver, Platinum, Zinc, An¬ 
timony, and Arsenic. 


child’s guide to knowledge. 205 

Will metals combine with each other ? 

They will; the mixture is called an Alloy, 
but the inferior metal is commonly called the 
alloy of the superior. Brass is composed of 
an Alloy of Copper and Zinc. 

What is German Silver? 

It is an Alloy of copper, zinc, and Nickel. 
Bronze contains ninety parts of copper and 
ten of tin. Type-metal consists of three parts 
of tin and one of antimony. Pewter is com¬ 
posed of tin, antimony, copper, and bismuth. 
Gold and silver coins are alloyed with about 
one-twelfth of copper, making them harder 
and more durable. 

What is the most valuable metal of all? 

Iron, for its uses, and gold for some pecu¬ 
liar qualities. 

What are these? 

Gold is the heaviest of the metals, being 
about twenty times heavier than the same bulk 
of water. A tea-cup filled with gold would 
be as heavy as twenty tea-cups of water. 

Is gold remarkably ductile? 

More so than any metal. A single grain 
of gold can be drawn out to five hundred 
feet of wire. Gold never tarnishes, nor rusts 
in open air. It will retain, in every situation, 
its bright yellow color, unstained. 

18 


206 child’s guide to knowledge. 

What is Gilding ? 

It is a superficial covering of Goldleaf, 
applied to picture-frames, lamps, vanes, or 
crosses upon church-spires, and to many oth¬ 
er things. 

What are “golden sands?” 

By golden sands, people mean sands con¬ 
taining small particles of gold, which are 
brought down by rivers. The gold known 
to the ancients was chiefly obtained from 
the sands and gravel found on the banks of 
rivers. 

What rivers were famous for these sands ? 

These were, chiefly, the Pactolus and Pha- 
sis, in Asia Minor; the Po, in Italy; the 
Tagus and Douro, in Spain and Portugal. 

Is the use of Gold ancient? 

The use of gold is very ancient. We read 
in the Bible of the golden candlestick, used 
by the Jews in their worship. 

Is gold abundant at the present time? 

More so than in any former age. Russia, 
California, and Australia afford immense 
quantities. 

When was the gold of California first discovered? 

It was first seen there by the present in¬ 
habitants, in the gravel descended from a 
mill-stream, a tributary of the Sacramento 


child’s guide to knowledge. 207 

River, in 1848. People began then to dig 
for gold in that neighborhood, and have since 
obtained much of that precious metal. 

Has the productiveness of the California gold continued ? 

Gold has continued to be found abundantly 
in California. 


When was gold discovered in Australia? 

In 1850; an English gentleman, thinking 
the ground resembled that of California, 
sought for gold in Australia, and found it 
in no less than twelve places. Since then, 
gold has been dug in extensive districts, and 
much of it has been exported to England. 

In what part of Russia is gold found ? 

Both in European and Asiatic Russia; on 
the slopes of the Ural mountains, and south 
of Siberia. 

Is there gold in Africa? 

Yes; one part of Africa is called the Gold 
Coast, and some gold is imported from there 
to England every year. The richest African 
mines are situated thirty miles south of the 
river Senegal. 

Do hot countries afford gold? 

Cold and temperate climates, as well as 
warmer regions, contain gold; the country 



208 child’s guide to knowledge. 

may be flat or mountainous, inland or upon 
the sea-coast. 

Is gold easily melted? 

The fusion of gold is effected without very 
strong heat: neither that nor silver can be 
Calcined; they are, therefore, called Perfect 
metals, and often Precious metals. 

What is meant by Calcining? 

Burning to powder. When lead is melted, 
scales of it will be found on the surface of 
the fluid metal. This is calcined lead. The 
whole quantity might be burnt to Calces, 
leaving no lead at all. 

What is Silver? 

It is a perfect metal, but much lighter than 
gold, weighing but eleven times as much as 
water. Silver is white, but susceptible of a 
high polish. Many useful and elegant things 
are made of silver, as forks, spoons, pitchers, 
and drinking-cups. 

Is the use of silver ancient? 

It is; “ Apples of gold in pictures of sil¬ 
ver,” meaning some ornamental work, is 
mentioned in the Bible. 

What is meant by a silver sound ? 

It is a gentle ringing sound, like that of 
a small silver bell. Such an expression is 
Figurative. 


child’s guide to knowledge. 209 

What country affords much silver? 

Peru, in South America, contains rich 
silver mines, as does Mexico, in North 
America. The mines of Potosi, in Peru, 
were the richest in the world. ' 

How were these mines discovered? 

It is related that Diego Hualca, an Indian 
hunter, 1545, pulling up a shrub, drew up 
with its roots a piece of silver. The metal 
was already known in that country, and the 
hunter knew something of its value. 

Did Diego become the proprietor of the mine? 

The Spaniards were owners of the country, 
and would not suffer the poor Indians to own 
any thing. The mountain containing the sil¬ 
ver was soon excavated, and vast supplies 
of that metal have been taken out of it. 

What are our American coins made of? 

Of gold, silver, and copper. The Eagle, 
or ten-dollar piece of money, the half-eagle, 
and quarter-eagle are of gold; the Dollar, 
half-dollar, quarter-dollar, the ten-cent piece, 
the five-cent piece, and the three-cent piece 
are of silver; the Cent, one hundred of which 
are a dollar, is of copper. 


What is Platinum? 


Platinum is a perfect metal, as indestract- 
18* 



210 child’s guide to knowledge. 

ible as gold, of a whitish-gray color, and very 
heavy. It is exceedingly malleable and duc¬ 
tile. Its chief use is to make such vessels for 
the chemist as shall neither break nor melt in 
the hottest fire. 

What is Quicksilver? 

It is a metal, white, like silver, but in a 
fluid state; being poured out, it w T ill run 
about in little globules, or round drops, like 
water; mixed with gum, oil, or fat, it loses 
its property of running about. 

Is quicksilver useful in combination? 

Yes; for, mixed with tin, it silvers looking- 
glasses, ' aiid with gold, it will gild over a 
metallic surface. 

How is this done? 

By heating the gjlded article; buttons, for 
instance. The quicksilver being very Vola¬ 
tile, flies off, and the gold adheres to the 
surface intended to be gilt. Quicksilver is 
fifteen times heavier than water. 

Is quicksilver ever used for Medicine? 

It is sometimes so used, being prepared 
with some mixture of drugs. It is then 
called Mercury. Such are called Mercurial 
medicines. 

Are mercurial medicines hurtful? 

They are injurious, unless taken with great 


child’s guide to knowledge. 


211 


care. One effect of the use of these medi¬ 
cines is loosening the teeth, and causing great 
spitting. 

What is this called? 

It is called Salivation, because the fluid 
of the mouth is Saliva, often called Spittle. 
Too much Saliva, caused by taking medicine, 
creates Salivation. This is supposed to re¬ 
lieve or cure some diseases, but in general 
it is hurtful. 



A Ketort. 


Is Quicksilver found in all parts of the world ? 

It is found in Spain, Austria, some parts of 
South America, and most abundantly in Cali¬ 
fornia. Quicksilver mixed with Sulphur 
makes a fine red paint called Yermilion. 
>This substance is also called Cinnabar. 

Is Cinnabar ever found ready-made in the earth ? 

It is so, and the quicksilver can be extracted 



212 child’s guide to knowledge. 

from it. The richest quicksilver mine in Cali¬ 
fornia is Forbes’s mine, sixty miles from San 
Francisco. Quicksilver assists in separating 
gold from sand, and from Quartz, a mineral 
which contains gold. 

How does the Quicksilver separate the Gold ? 

Quicksilver, mixed with such sands as con¬ 
tain gold, or with the quartz -which contains 
gold, may be mixed with this quartz pounded 
up. The whole mixture being then shaken, 
the quicksilver attracts to itself every particle 
of the gold, and this Amalgam falls to the 
bottom of the vessel. 

How are the gold and quicksilver then separated ? 

By applying to the Amalgam a furnace- 
heat the quicksilver flies olf into a receptacle 
prepared for it, and the gold and silver are 
then free of each other, and Pure. 

What is meant by the word Pure ? 

Consisting of a single substance: as flour 
alone, before it is mixed with water, milk, or 
eggs, is Pure. 

What is Purity in regard to the person and mind ? 

Purity in garments means clothing without 
soil or stain; Purity of heart means innocence, 
truth, and goodness in the soul, without any 
feelings of ill-will, or any intention to deceive. 



child’s guide to knowledge. 213 

What is Copper ? 

Copper is a very useful metal of a reddish- 
brown color, as may be seen in a new cent. 
It is but eight times heavier than water. It 
is easily wrought into sheets, or into cooking 
and other vessels. 

Does Copper easily rust ? 

It does; and the rust of it, green and hav¬ 
ing a disagreeable odor, is called Verdigris. 
Copper in sheets is often used to cover the 
bottoms of ships. 

Why is Copper so used ? 

Because it is smooth, and passes easily 
through water, and also protects the wood 
which it covers from certain worms that would 
else bore into it. 

Are Cooking Vessels made of Copper ? 

They are, but are generally lined with tin : 
if any acid like vinegar is put into an untinned 
copper vessel, it makes the rust of copper, 
which is a poison. Poisons taken into the 
stomach create sickness, and sometimes cause 
death. 

How is Copper converted to Brass ? 

By mixture with Zinc, another metallic 
substance. Brass is of a golden yellow color, 
and when highly polished is very brilliant. 
Copper bears hammering, but brass is not 
malleable, and must be differently wrought. 


214 child’s guide to knowledge. 

What Countries afford Copper ? 

Some parts of England and Wales. Copper 
is said to exist abundantly on the borders of 
Lake Superior, in the United States. 

What is Zinc ? 

Zinc is a bluish-white metal found often 
mingled with sulphur or carbon. Carbon is 
the same substance as Charcoal, but often so 
finely mingled with other matter that it can¬ 
not be seen. A substance containing carbon 
is called a Carbonate, as Zinc and Carbon are 
a Carbonate of Zinc. 

What is this Carbonate of Zinc ? 

It is Calamine, and is found abundantly in 
the State of New Jersey. Zinc may be rolled 
out into sheets. 

For what is Zinc used ? 

Zinc is extensively used for gas-pipes, for 
roofing of buildings, and for lining of refrige¬ 
rators. It is lighter than lead, cheaper than 
copper, and less liable to rust than iron. 

What is Lead ? 

Lead is a blue metal, so soft as to rub off on 
paper, and to be scratched with one’s nail. It 
is highly malleable, but not sufficiently ductile 
to admit of being drawn into wire. 

Is Lead subject to artificial changes ? 

Yes : it can be made into White lead, used 


child’s guide to knowledge. 215 

by painters ; Red lead, also a painter’s color; 
and Litharge, a preparation of it used in the 
arts. 

What are the Calces of Lead ? 

Calces is the plural of Calx. Calces of 
lead are such particles as fire causes to rise on 
the surface of lead, the whole substance of 
lead being convertible to Calces by continued 
burning. A certain portion of lead enters 
into the composition of the finest glass. 

In what countries is Lead found ? 

Lead is more in use than any metal except 
Iron. It is found abundantly in England, 
Wales, and Scotland, and at Galena, in the 
State of Illinois. Thick bars of lead intended 
for sale are called Pigs. 

What is the Worker in lead called ? 

He is the Plumber; the Plumber makes the 
leaden pipes which convey water to our kitch¬ 
ens and baths, and also what are called the 
Waste pipes, which carry water out into the 
drain or sewer of houses. 

What is the Sewer ? 

A Sewer is a channel dug out and stoned 
on the bottom and sides, below the surface of 
the ground. 

What is the use of the Sewer ? 

A Sewer, besides carrying off superfluous 


21G child’s guide to knowledge. 


water, takes away many refuse substances 
which might else injure the health of fami¬ 
lies. 


What is Tin ? 

It is a white metal, which, when untarnish¬ 
ed, looks like silver; it is contained in inex¬ 
haustible mines in Cornwall in England, and 
in the peninsula of Malacca. 

Were the mines of Cornwall known in ancient times ? 

They were ; for the Phoenicians traded with 
the Britons, the ancient inhabitants of Eng¬ 
land, before the birth of Christ. These Phoe¬ 
nicians came all the way from Western Asia 
through the Mediterranean. 

What are the peculiar qualities of Tin ? 

It is softer than gold, slightly ductile, and 
so malleable that it may be made into a Foil 
only one-thousandth part of an inch in thick¬ 
ness. 

What is Foil ? 

Foil, of gold, silver, or Tin, is a thin sheet 
of either metal. Tin foil is so thin that one 
thousand leaves of it laid one upon another 
would torm a thickness of only one inch. 

Is gold leaf thinner than tin foil ? 

Gold leaf is so thin as to require 28,200 



child’s guide to knowledge. 217 

leaves to make an inch of thickness, and silver 
foil requires 10,000 leaves. 

How is Tin used ? 

Tin is used for the coating or lining of cop¬ 
per vessels, and spread upon sheets of iron, 
forms what is called Tin Plate. These plates, 
joined together, make many useful things. 

How are these plates joined ? 

They are united in seams; these seams are 
joined by a mixture of melted lead and tin 
called Solder. This is poured into the seam, 
and, when cooled, strongly cements the pieces 
of tin. 

Have you seen any thing made of Tin ? 

I have seen Boxes, Kettles, Candlesticks, 
Pails, and Pans. 


What is Iron ? 

It is the metal most useful of any, being 
found in almost every country, and used for 
many purposes. It makes Bars, Pick-axes, 
Spades, Ploughshares, Hoops, Spikes and 
Hails, and many other things. 

In what sense is Iron the most valuable of metals ? 

Because it is of the greatest service, and a 
benefit to all persons in all countries that 
19 



218 child’s guide to knowledge. 

know the use of it. The implements of the 
miner, the farmer, the carpenter, the mason, 
the smith, and the shipwright, are made of 
Iron, and with Iron. 

Of what use is Iron to Travellers ? 

Roads laid down with Iron rails are tra¬ 
versed by the Iron wheels of enormous car¬ 
riages in long trains, bearing along thousands 
of passengers daily, with almost the speed of 
a bird’s flight. 

Of what use is Iron at Sea ? 

Machines that propel great sea-boats are 
made of Iron, and so are the anchors that stay 
them in storms, the needles that guide them, 
and the springs of those Chronometers that 
measure their time. 

How is Iron useful in our houses ? 

It forms part of our fire-places, our stoves 
and grates, thus aiding in the cooking of food 
and in warming our persons, in all our cutting 
instruments in daily use, and even affording 
medicine to our ailments. 

How is the medicinal quality of Iron manifested ? 

Chalybeate Springs, which contain Iron, 
relieve invalids, and steel-dust is given as 
Medicine. 

Has Iron any thing to do with Learning ? 

Yes; it makes steel pens, is part of the 


child’s guide to knowledge. 219 

coloring of ink, and also forms parts of the 
printing press: thus by means of Iron Knowl¬ 
edge is scattered all over the world. 

What is Specific Gravity ? 

The attraction of the Earth to any body or 
substance on the earth. 

How is Attraction apparent ? 

By falling of things to the earth; they do 
not rise into the sky; the earth draws all 
things to itself, except gases and vapors which 
are lighter than air. 

What is Weight ? 

It is Specific Gravity. If gold is heavier 
than iron, it is so because it is less porous and 
more solid, and is drawn with greater force 
towards the earth. The lightest article, a 
feather, would fall to the ground if it were 
not kept up for a time by air which sup¬ 
ports it. 


Is Iron a heavy metal ? 

It is one of the lightest, being only seven 
or eight times heavier than water. It is the 
hardest of metals, and the most elastic, or 
springy; it is very difficult to break, and is 
not easily fusible. 



220 child’s guide to knowledge. 

Are there different modes of preparing Iron for use ! 

There are Forged iron, Cast iron, and Steel, 
very differently wrought and different also in 
their respective uses. 

What is Forged Iron f 

Iron, when first melted from the ore, is 
hard and little malleable; but when heated 
red-hot, and beaten with the hammer, it be¬ 
comes ductile and Flexible. The horse-shoe 
is forged iron. 

What is Cast Iron ? 

Cast Iron is that which is melted and pour¬ 
ed into moulds of any shape. Cast Iron, 
such as kitchen vessels, is brittle,. and should 
not be handled carelessly. 

What is Steel ? 

Steel is a preparation of Iron. The best 
iron, that out of which all mixture of other 
matter is expelled, is Wrought Iron. This 
wrought iron, with addition of Carbonic mat¬ 
ter, is made into Steel. 

How is this done ? 

Bars of wrought iron are laid into powdered 
charcoal, and then both substances are put 
into boxes filled with sand, and closed tight. 
The contents of the boxes are kept in an in¬ 
tense heat for ten days, and when opened, the 
iron is found to be Steel. 


child’s guide to knowledge. 221 


What is made of Steel ? 

This substance is made into clock and watch 
springs; into knife-blades, scissors, and nee¬ 
dles ; into chisels, and many other mechanical 
•instruments. 

How do you know Steel ? 

By its brilliancy when polished, its peculiar 
color, and its hardness. 

Is Steel elastic ? 

It is elastic, as the watch-spring, when 
made to be so; but brittle, as a penknife, or the 
points of scissors, if made in a particular 
manner. 

Do Iron and Steel rust easily f 

They do, when not kept quite dry. 

What is Loadstone ? 

It is an ore of iron, sometimes called the 
Magnet. The Magnet will draw or Attract 
iron and steel to itself. It will thus draw up 
a needle or a key to itself, and adhere to them 
until it be forced off. 


What is the Magnetic Needle ? 

It is a Magnet made into a Needle, and 
fastened like the hand of a dial to the face of 
the Mariner’s Compass. This magnetic nee¬ 
dle, fixed in the middle by a rivet, will al- 
19 * 



222 child’s guide to knowledge. 

ways point one end to the North exactly, and 
the other to the South. 

Can the magnetic power be communicated ? 

Yes : by rubbing a magnetic needle and one 
not magnetized together, the latter may receive- 
the magnetic property, and become also a 
Magnet. 


What is the world we live in? 

It is the globe of the Earth, one of the 
Planets, receiving from the Sun Light and 
Heat; itself formed of land and water, and 
surrounded by an Atmosphere which all 
animals Respire or breathe. 

Is the earth fitted to mankind? 

It is exactly contrived to support the life 
of man, and all other living beings. It is 
formed of mineral substances adapted to his 
wants; produces vegetables on which he feeds; 
and animals that assist his labor, and also 
furnish him with many of the necessaries of 
life. 

What science describes the interior of the Earth ? 

Geology. A Geologist is one who exam¬ 
ines the different soils of countries, the rocks 
above and below the surface of the ground, 
the form and height of mountains, and the 
Coasts which border on the sea and lakes. 



child’s guide to knowledge. 223 

Why is all this done? 

Because men have in their minds a prin¬ 
ciple called Curiosity. Curiosity is the desire 
of knowing more than we know at the present 
moment. 

Do all persons possess Curiosity? 

All persons are not geologists, all do not de¬ 
sire to possess some knowledge of the depths 
of the earth, but all desire to know something. 

Do infants show signs of curiosity ? 

Children of all ages show curiosity; they 
all try to learn something, not from books, 
but from objects around them. 

What is the use of Curiosity? 

If we had no desire to acquire knowledge, 
we should be like the lower animals; like 
the cattle, or the birds of the air. We should 
be no wiser, at twenty years of age, than 
when we were one year old. 

What is Experience? 

Experience is what we have seen and 
known, what we can remember and think of. 

Of what use is Experience ? 

Experience tells us what to do, and what 
not to do. If I burnt my finger by thrusting 
it into the candle-flame, I should know that 
fire burns, and should not do so again. Ex¬ 
perience would teach me not to play with fire. 


224 


child’s guide to knowledge. 


Is there any other mode of obtaining knowledge besides 
experience ? 

Observation is part of experience. To ob¬ 
serve, is to look carefully at what is around 
us: to listen to what we hear, to use all our 
senses, besides attending to Instruction, are 
means of gaining knowledge. 

What is Instruction? 

Instruction is the pains taken by the well- 
informed to afford knowledge to the ignorant. 

Who are the Ignorant? 

Infants are ignorant; they know nothing 
till they live long enough to observe and be 
instructed. 

Are grown persons ever Ignorant? 

Some grown persons know much more 
than others, as some are wiser and better 
than others. Some persons know a great 
deal, and some very little. 

Why do many remain in Ignorance? 

Because they have not been instructed 
when young; but often because they have 
hated Instruction, and have taken no pains 
to acquire knowledge. 

Besides Observation and instruction from others, is there 
any way to obtain knowledge? 

Yes, by reading and study. Wise and 
learned men have written out what they 
know for the benefit of others, and by means 


child's guide to knowledge. 


225 


of printed books we can learn what they 
would teach. 

Can we acquire knowledge at any time of our life ? 

If we begin while young to acquire know 
ledge, because we love it, we shall gain more 
the longer we live. 

But may we not begin learning when we are old? 

Then we have not Leisure; that is, time 
enough to learn much. To him only who 
knows much, much more will be given, late 
in life; then, for the most part, the ignorant 
must remain ignorant. 

How is that? 

We are so made that Habit, after we have 
been long in the world, inclines us to know 
only what we already know, and to do what 
we have done. 

What is Habit? 

It is Use or Custom: habit is what we 
have done for a long time; taking breakfast 
every morning is a habit. 

Are habits both good and bad? 

They are; good habits make good people, 
and bad habits make men, women, and 
children bad, if they will not correct them. 

If we have formed bad habits, can we alter or correct 
them ? 

We are sometimes able to alter bad habits; 


226 child’s guide to knowledge. 

we can always improve, or grow wiser and 
better, if we try very much; but it is best to 
form good habits at first. 

What are two very bad habits? 

Idleness and Ignorance: it is only by de¬ 
termining to exert ourselves, and by striving 
to learn, that we can obtain any considerable 
knowledge. 


Has the Earth always been in its present state ? 

Geologists presume, that previously to the 
creation of Man, the globe of the earth was in 
a different condition from the present. Sea- 
shells are found on mountain tops, and Or¬ 
ganic remains of animals of Extinct Species 
have been found beneath the surface of the 
earth. 

What are Extinct Species ? 

Animals that have existed, but which no 
longer exist; the Mastodon, or Mammoth, be¬ 
longs to an extinct species. 

What are Organic remains ? 

Organic remains are Fossil bones, that is, 
buried bones, found beneath the surface, and 
sometimes disinterred from the ground. En¬ 
tire skeletons of sea-animals have been found 
in the earth near sea-coasts, thirty feet in 
length, resembling the lizard in structure. 




child’s guide to knowledge. 227 



Skeleton of a Mammoth. 


What name has been given to these remains ? 

That of Sea-lizard, and sometimes Ichthy¬ 
osaurus, a Greek name. Other remains of 
animals once belonging to the sea, and equally 
large, have been found imbedded in earth, but 
are never seen living. 

Are there other proofs of Changes in the earth ? 

Many, and one especially: Coal, though 
called a mineral, was once a vegetable. Great 
forests thrown down, vast quantities of trees 
uptorn and driven by floods of water, were 
buried by soil forced upon the top of fallen 
trees and plants; they lying beneath it, through 
countless ages, until turned into Bituminous 
and Anthracite coal. 




228 child’s guide to knowledge. 

How is this known ? 

Because marks of fern leaves are found in 
pieces of coal broken open, and foot-prints of 
birds made when it was soft. The coal being 
Analyzed, or accurately examined, is found 
to consist of the same substance as trees are 
made of. 

What is that substance ? 

By burning wood, but not to ashes, we ob¬ 
tain charcoal, or Carbon, and thus learn that 
the matter of wood-coal and mineral-coal is 
the same. 

What is the effect of burning Charcoal, or any coal, in a 
close room ? 

It will cause the death of any person breath¬ 
ing the air of that room. It produces As¬ 
phyxia ; that is, its gas, Evolved in burning, 
if respired, will occasion a convulsion of the 
air-passages : they who imbibe this gas soon 
fall into stupor, and die. 

What is inferred from manifest changes in the Earth ? 

That once it was not fit for the habitation 
of man, and that no man existed then upon 
this planet ; but when certain changes had 
taken place, by the extinction of enormous 
animals which would interfere with human 
beings, God having prepared the earth by 
other alterations for the human race, bestowed 
it upon them. 


child’s guide to knowledge. 229 

How ia the structure of the earth described ? 

Upon its surface is the vast bed of the 
ocean, covering two-thirds of the earth; the 
remainder being solid earth, such as we stand 
upon, is divided into continents and islands. 

Are these flat surfaces ? 

Ho; they contain mountains, plains, and 
great rocks, and are watered by lakes and 
rivers. The Centre of the earth is presumed 
to be Fire, called the Central Fire 

What does the surface of the earth principally consist of? 

Its surface consists chiefly of the soil called 
Vegetable Mould. 

How is Mould formed ? 

By the decay of vegetables. When God 
fitted this world for his creature Man, he 
commanded that the earth should “ bring 
forth grass, the herb yielding seed, and the 
fruit-tree yielding fruit;” “ He spake, and it 
was done.” 

What has been the effect of this Fiat of the Almighty ? 

Vegetables thus ordained to exist, to grow 
and flourish, have continued so to exist, and 
to be renewed. Every year the leaves fall 
from most trees, and lie upon the ground; 
grass grows up, is cut down, and springs 
again; wheat, com, and all fruits ripen, and 
then return in some way or another to the 
soil. 


20 


230 child’s guide to knowledge. 

What has become of all these vegetable substances in six 
thousand years ? 

They have partly composed vegetables 
again ; but a great part has accumulated, that 
is, Increased, layer upon layer, in vegetable 
mould, which lies under our feet to consider¬ 
able depth, wherever vegetation has been 
going on for ages. 

Is there no more material substance now than there was 
thousands of years ago ? 

Hot any more. The Elements, certain sub¬ 
stances which make the whole planet, have 
changed their form and place innumerable 
times, but the Quantity of them is the same 
still. 

Can you give an example of this ? 

Yes; primitive trees contained Carbon; 
some of these trees were turned to Carbon in 
coal; this Carbon may be burned and turns 
to Carbonic gas; Carbonic gas enters into 
plants when they are growing, and with other 
substances makes new vegetables and wood. 

How does water continue the same in quantity ? 

The water of the great ocean evaporates in 
Clouds ; the Clouds fall in rain; the rain forms 
springs and Rivers ; the Rivers run into the 
Ocean, and so continue, exhaling and return¬ 
ing to the great reservoir. 


child’s guide to knowledge. 231 

Do we not use up much water ? 

We use it, but all that water exists after¬ 
wards : mixed with foul substances, it is thrown 
out, but this water all evaporates, being quite 
pure, and mingles in the atmosphere with 
other vapor. 

What is Annihilation ? 

To Annihilate any thing would be to de¬ 
stroy it entirely. If I throw a letter into the 
fire, I annihilate the writing, but I do not an¬ 
nihilate the paper, it exists still in ashes ; the 
form of the substance changes, the matter of 
it remains. 

What is the Perpetuity of Matter ? 

Its quality of continuing when it appears 
to be broken, decayed, or injurious. It will 
then take new and beneficial forms. 

Can Men descend very deep into the Earth? 

By boring, they may descend some hun¬ 
dred feet below the surface. This is done 
to obtain water. The well, into which water 
flows from springs deep in the ground, may 
be made deeper or shallower. 

Have any very deep wells been dug ? 

There is a sort called the Artesian well, 
dug in a low place, between two eminences 
at a distance from each other: such a well 
is dug down often some hundred feet. The 


232 child’s guide to knowledge. 

laborers find the earth warmer and warmer 
as they descend. 

Why does not the Central Fire explode, and burn up all 
things far and near? 

As a house has chimneys that conduct 
smoke from the fire of the hearth, so the 
earth has its Yents, or openings, by which 
the Subterranean fire is sometimes thrown 
out. These are Volcanoes. 

How are volcanoes formed? 

They are generally mountains, hollowed 
atop into a vast bowl or cup, called the 
Crater, through the bottom of which the fire 
is forced up with great violence. 

Does nothing but Fire come from the Crater of a Vol¬ 
cano? 

Yes, certain substances forming the inte¬ 
rior of the passage through which the fire 
is forced are thrown up by it; ashes, mud, 
pumice-stone, and a peculiar substance called 
Lava. 

What does Lava resemble ? 

When poured out of the Volcano, it is in 
a fluid state, as thick as honey; but when 
it is cooled, it becomes so hard that it may 
be wrought into boxes and small articles. 

What is lava composed of? 

Of certain mineral substances, including a 


child’s guide to knowledge. 233 

portion of Iron, all in a state of fusion when 
first Ejected. 

Do volcanic Eruptions occur frequently? 

The Eruptions often happen at distant in¬ 
tervals of time, but warning is usually given 
by abundance of smoke from the crater, and 
often by earthquakes. 

Where do volcanoes commonly exist? 

They are found commonly in the neigh¬ 
borhood of the sea, or of lakes. Many vol¬ 
canoes are now extinct, though they are 
known to have existed, by lava and other 
volcanic matter lying about them. 

Are there many volcanoes in the world? 

Volcanoes, still subject to eruptions, are 
found in almost every country. In Italy, 
and the neighboring islands, are several, 
both active and extinct. 

Which are the most considerable ? 

Mount Vesuvius, near Naples, and Etna, 
in the island of Sicily; besides smaller ones 
in different parts of Italy, and in the Lipari 
islands. 

What is said of Volterra, a town in Tuscany? 

In the distance from this town, some hun¬ 
dreds of miles from Naples, is Monte Catino, 
famous for its copper mines; and in the 
same direction is seen the smoke of a volca- 
20 * 


234 child’s guide to knowledge. 

no. Almost all Italy is said to be of Yolcanic 
formation. 

Are there volcanoes on the Atlantic islands? 

There is a volcano in Teneriffe; the moun¬ 
tain is called the Peak of Teneriffe. Mount * 
Hecla, in Iceland, is a famous volcano. 

Are there volcanoes in Asia? 

On the coast of the Persian gulf there are 
volcanic mountains, some active, and others 
inactive. There are similar ones on the Red 
Sea coast; some near Smyrna, and others 
among the Caucasian mountains. 

Are volcanoes found on the western continent? 

Not in the Atlantic States, but the Rocky 
Mountains exhibit extinct volcanoes. Cali¬ 
fornia and Mexico contain many. These 
are; one in California, five in Mexico, and 
twenty in Central America. 

Are there Volcanoes in South America? 

There are some of prodigious grandeur, 
and frequent activity. Only one is active 
in Peru, but there are nineteen still subject 
to Eruptions; one, called Yillarica, burns al¬ 
most constantly. 

What are hot Springs? 

Warm and hot springs of water, heated 
by subterranean fires, are in some places 


child’s guide to knowledge. 235 

thrown up m great jets; those called the 
Geysers, in Iceland, are the most famous. 

Can any use be made of hot springs ? 

They serve in some places for bathing, 
and the Icelanders can cook their food in 
the boiling water of the Geysers. 


Are Volcanoes very destructive ? 

They often are so, as appears by the his¬ 
tory of Herculaneum and Pompeii; those 
cities which, lay hidden near Vesuvius for 
seventeen centuries. 

Do people ever build again upon ground that has been 
thus overwhelmed? 

They often build on the borders of it; 
because the place is convenient, because the 
neighboring soil is fertile, and because they 
hope an Eruption will not soon occur again. 

What are Earthquakes? 

An earthquake is a trembling, or shaking, 
and opening of the earth: it is generally 
preceded by a rumbling noise like thunder. 
Eruptions of volcanoes are often accompa¬ 
nied by earthquakes. 

Is the cause of earthquakes known ? 

It is believed that they, like thunder, are 
caused by electricity under ground, and also 
by subterranean fires. 



236 child’s guide to knowledge. 

Are all earthquakes of like violence ? 

No. In South America, particularly in 
Chili, where Earthquakes most frequently 
occur, the shock is often so slight as to be 
called the Tremor, or trembling. These tre¬ 
mors, at some seasons, happen there almost 
every day. 

How long does the shock of an earthquake last? 

It lasts from three seconds to three min¬ 
utes. When several shocks succeed each 
other, the first is the most violent, while 
those which follow diminish in force. 

Are earthquakes ever very alarming? 

Nothing can be more awful than the most 
violent earthquakes ; the earth heaves up and 
down, the walls of houses are thrown down, 
often upon the family within, and the noise 
and danger completely bewilder the people 
generally. 

What becomes of human beings in an earthquake ? 

Some are killed by the falling of buildings, 
others by openings in the earth—Fissures or 
great cracks, which open for a moment, and 
then close over unfortunate persons who may 
have fallen into them. 

Are Earthquakes known in all countries ? 

They have been felt in Europe and in Asia, 
but more often in South America. 


child’s guide to knowledge. 237 

When did the great Earthquake of Lisbon occur ? 

In 1755. This earthquake almost destroyed 
the city of Lisbon; thirty thousand persons 
perished in it, and a great number of houses 
and churches were laid in ruins. 

Is Sicily subject to earthquakes ? 

Both Sicily and Calabria, and the neighbor¬ 
ing part of Italy, are subject to earthquakes ; 
the town of Messina was overthrown, and 
great numbers were killed, about sixty years 
ago. 

Have very destructive earthquakes occurred in South 
America ? 

Yes; some of the countries on the Caribbean 
Sea, besides Peru and Chili, have been afflict¬ 
ed with earthquakes. The town of Caraccas 
has been twice destroyed by them ; forty 
thousand persons are supposed to have been 
killed by earthquakes on the high lands of 
Peru in 1797. 

Are the United States subject to earthquakes ? 

JSTo; this happy country is blessed with an 
agreeable climate for the most part, and is 
exempted from Volcanic eruptions and from 
earthquakes; though very slight tremors of the 
earth have been felt in some places. 

Do earthquakes cover a great space ? 

Some earthquakes in South America have 
been known to extend over tracts from seven 


238 child’s guide to knowledge. 

hundred to nine hundred miles in length upon 
the sea-coasts, and to some distance inland. 

Are earthquakes felt at sea ? 

During an earthquake the sea rushes upon 
the land in great waves, and then returns with 
the same force to miles out at sea, so as to be 
felt within the distance by persons in ships. 

At what season of the year do earthquakes occur ? 

They happen at all seasons; in calm and 
cloudless weather and during rain and storms. 
Sometimes they occur without rumbling, so 
that people having no warning cannot escape 
from their houses, but are crushed beneath 
their ruins. 


What is under the vegetable mould that covers the earth ? 

The centre of the earth is supposed to be 
tire,—that which issues from volcanoes, and 
warms the hot springs ; over that fire is what 
is called the Crust of the earth. 

Is the Crust of the earth all of one substance ? 

The crust of our globe consists of a series 
of beds of rock, laid one over the other like 
the leaves of a book. The undermost of all 
these rocks has a different appearance from 
the other Superincumbent layers, and is called 
the Primary Stratum. 



child’s guide to knowledge. 239 

What is meant by Superincumbent, and by Stratum ? 

Superincumbent signifies lying above some¬ 
thing else, as a bed upon a bedstead. Stratum 
signifies a layer of earth. If some clay be 
laid on the ground, and some chalk spread 
over the clay, and some sand put upon the 
chalk, there are Strata of clay, chalk, and 
sand. 

Why not say Stratums ? 

Because Stratum is a Latin word, and re¬ 
quires a plural ending in a. One layer is a 
Stratum; and several, one over another, are 
Strata. 

What is the second Stratum of rocks called ? 

The first is called the Primary, the next in 
order the Secondary, and the uppermost the 
Tertiary formation. 

Is vegetable mould laid over the Tertiary formation ? 

Ho ; between the mould and the rock is a 
covering of sand, gravel, and clay. Any 
person may see this who looks at a cellar 
which is dug out, but still unwalled. 

Are rocks and loose soil of the same substance ? 

Several substances are mingled in them, 
but the chief are Limestone, Clay, sometimes 
called Alumina, and Sand, called Silica, or 
Silex. 


240 child’s guide to knowledge. 

"What is Limestone ? 

It is the principal substance in marble, 
chalk, gypsum, and alabaster. It enters into 
bones of all animals, and into sea-shells, egg¬ 
shells, and corals, and forms a part of some 
vegetables. 

How can lime become any part of vegetables ? 

Sometimes the soil in which they are plant¬ 
ed contains lime, and sometimes lime, being 
powdered or pulverized, is strewed over the 
soil. Lying on the ground, the heat of the 
sun, and the water in the earth decompose or 
dissolve it. 

How does the plant imbibe it ? 

The roots draw up the moisture of the soil, 
and thus the lime becomes part of the juices 
of the plant, serving to make wheat and other 
productions of the earth more abundant and 
better. It improves the crops. 

What are Manures ? 

All substances which are put on the earth 
to increase the growth of plants, are Manures. 
Whatever has once been a vegetable makes 
good manure; thus, many things that are in 
themselves dirty and offensive become purified, 
and are Reproduced in new forms. 

Can you mention any Manures besides Lime ? 

Yes: all decayed leaves, or any part of vege- 


child’s guide TO KNOWLEDGE. 24:1 

tables, like apple-parings, enrich the ground. 
Ashes is manure, because it is burnt wood. 

What is Clay ? 

Clay is a soft earth which mixes well with 
water, and forms a sort of paste. A soil con¬ 
sisting chiefly of clay produces much mud 
after rain. 

Of what use is Clay ? 

Clay makes Bricks, Tiles, and Porcelain. 
Clay, called Argilla in Latin, is often called 
Argillaceous earth. It is the chief part of 
Slate-stone hardened in the ground, and form¬ 
ing Slate Quarries. 

Will clay extract grease ? 

It will draw grease from another substance 
into itself. A certain preparation of clay is 
called Fuller’s Earth, and is used to extract 
grease from newly-woven woollen cloth. 

What is the proper name of Sand ? 

It is Silex, or Silica. Flint-stones are com¬ 
posed chiefly of Silex ; earths containing sand 
are called Silicious earth. 

Is Sand any part of Glass ? 

It is, and is said to be Verifiable, because 
it will form glass. Vitrum is the Latin for 
glass. 

Is glass any part of Porcelain ? 

It is: Porcelain made of clay only would 
21 


242 child’s guide to knowledge. 

be porous; but in order to prevent water 
from straining, or Percolating through it, its 
surface is Glazed. 

What is Glazing ? 

It is a mixture of powdered flints and lead, 
which, rubbed over the surface of porcelain, 
makes it smooth and hard, causing it to shine 
slightly. 


When Silex is very pure and transparent,what is it called ? 

It is then Quartz. Quartz is sometimes so 
pure and transparent as to form the eyes of 
Spectacles instead of glass. It is then called 
Crystal. The phrase “ as clear as crystal,” 
expresses the clearest transparency. 

Where is Silex found ? 

This mineral abounds in all countries. It 
constitutes a portion of many mountain ranges, 
the sand and gravel of soils, and pebbles upon 
the sea-shore. 

Does Silex ever form precious stones ? 

It does. The Diamond is pure Carbon, and 
contains no silex; but Rock-crystal, the violet- 
colored Amethyst, and Carnelian, are formed 
of Silex and certain coloring matter. 

Are these the only precious stones formed of Silex ? 

There are several more thus formed: the 



child’s guide to knowledge. 243 

Agate, Jasper, and Opal: the Onyx, Sardonyx, 
and the stone on which Cameos are cut, are 
also forms of Silica. 

Is Silica important to vegetation? 

Yes; its presence in many soils is necessary 
to the growth of plants; it is taken up in the 
stalks and grains. So much Silica is contained 
in a certain rush, the Equisetum, that it is 
called the Scouring Rush; a handful of it 
serves as a scrubbing-brush. 

To what uses besides Glass-making and Glazing can Silex 
be applied ? 

It forms Gun-flints, Grindstones, and the 
Millstones used in grinding grain. 

What is Sandstone ? 

It is an Aggregation or conglomeration of 
sand and other matters. Brown-stone, or 
Freestone, is properly Red Sandstone. This 
stone is apt to Disintegrate, that is, to break 
into scales and particles of itself. 

What are Aggregation and Disintegration ? 

Aggregation is the union of a number of 
particles, as sand combined in a lump or mass 
of stone. Disintegration is the falling apart 
of a mass, as a stone or rock fallen to sand. 

What suggested the idea of a boat? 

People saw that wood would float, and so 
they hollowed logs to serve them to move 


244 child’s guide to knowledge. 

upon the water; they found that by using 
their limbs they could swim, and go whither 
they chose in the water, and they contrived 
paddles to move their canoes or boats as they 
chose. 

Have any people such primitive boats at the present 
time ? 

The Greenlanders and Esquimaux now 
employ one, of their own invention, called 
the Kayak. It is made of a light frame 
of wood, covered with water-proof skins. 
The top is also covered, leaving a hole for 
the Rower. 

How does he sit? 

He thrusts his lower limbs down into the 
boat, while his body fits the top as a cork 
fits the mouth of a bottle; then, with paddles 
in his hand, he goes to sea, to take fish and 
seals. 

Had the Greeks and Romans bettor vessels than these ? 

Yes; they and the Tyrians, a famous peo¬ 
ple of antiquity, who lived near the Hebrews, 
at the head of the Mediterranean, had ships 
with sails, called Galleys. 

What sea did they navigate ? 

Chiefly, the Mediterranean; though the 
Phoenicians, or Tyrians, sailed as far as Bri¬ 
tain to procure tin. 


\ 

child’s guide to knowledge. 245 

Could the ancients sail out of sight of land ? 

They could not; because the use of the 
magnetic needle was then unknown, and the 
Mariner’s Compass was not then invented, 
nor other instruments, which enable sailors 
to guide their vessels across the Ocean. 

When were the uses of the Magnet discovered? 

It is supposed to have been used by the 
Chinese, to direct them in land journeys, 
many centuries before it was known in Eu¬ 
rope. The Compass was not made use of 
by Europeans very long before the voyage 
of Columbus, 1492. 


What is a Ship? 

It is a vessel fitted to cross the ocean, by 
means of which Men are conveyed from one 
country to another, and the commodities of 
one country are also transported from coun¬ 
try to country. * 

Have men always made use of large ships ? 

No: they probably have had small boats, 
and small sailing-vessels, for many ages; but 
large ships are an invention of modern times, 
or an improvement on former constructions. 

Are ships mentioned in the Bible ? 

They are: “ They that go down to the sea 
21 * 



246 child’s guide to knowledge. 

in ships, and do business on the mighty wa¬ 
ters,” are mentioned in the Psalms. 



A Ship. 

What Beas were the Hebrew people acquainted with ? 


Only the Red Sea and the Mediterranean. 
They had crossed the Red Sea, in passing 
out of Egypt into Arabia, and part of their 
own territory of Palestine lay on the Medi¬ 
terranean. 

Were the Hebrews a Maritime nation? 

They were not: they were an agricultural 
people; but Solomon, the wisest and most 
powerful of the Hebrew kings, about ten 
centuries before the birth of Christ, carried 
on considerable traffic by sea. 

What is Traffic? 

It is buying, selling, and exchanging things 
for money. Money, of gold and silver, is a 
very ancient invention. Exchange of the 





child’s guide to knowledge. 247 

necessaries and luxuries of life is Com¬ 
merce. 

What first induced men to build ships? 

Curiosity, the love of property, and the 
love of enterprise. They wished to see some¬ 
thing they had never seen, to go where they 
had never been, to obtain what they had nev¬ 
er possessed, and to try their own strength 
and skill. 

How does all this appear? 

They learned that they could make boats, 
and make good use of them: they thus 
crossed water they never had crossed, and 
beheld islands and shores they never had 
beheld. 

Could men go out of sight of land without a Compass ? 

They could not go, with certainty of re¬ 
turning ; but it is believed that they some¬ 
times did go, for it is said that men from 
Europe visited the Azores, centuries before 
Columbus crossed the Atlantic. 

Was Columbus the first discoverer of the Western Con¬ 
tinent? 

He first discovered the West India Isl¬ 
ands and South America, but it is affirmed 
that navigators from Norway had sailed to 
the northern parts of the continent long be¬ 
fore. 


248 


child's guide to knowledge. 


How long was this expedition accomplished before the 
time of Columbus? 

About six hundred years. The Norwe¬ 
gians visited Iceland and the Shetland Isl¬ 
ands, where they planted Colonies in the 
ninth century. They afterwards advanced 
westward to Greenland, and further south. 

How did the vessel find its way over sea without a Compass ? 

By observing the sun by day, and the 
moon and stars by night. The sun rises in 
the East, and at mid-day is in the south. 
Moving in the direction of the Sun, or mov¬ 
ing from it, the navigator would know which 
way he was proceeding. 

Are the stars any guide ? 

One star, called the North Star, or Pole 
Star, always may be seen in the northern 
point of the heavens; so that steering to¬ 
wards that star, or from it, in any direction, 
the Mariner knows that he cannot be out of 
his way, should he design to go North or 
* South, East or West, or between any two of 
those points. 

Then why will not the heavenly bodies now serve to 
guide ships? 

Because they are often obscured by clouds 
and storms, and the Compass and other in¬ 
struments are more accurate than men’s eyes, 
without such assistance. 


child’s guide to knowledge. 249 

What Sea did men explore, chiefly, before the discovery 
of America? 

The Asiatics generally explored their own 
coasts, the islanders of different parts of the 
globe went out to sea in their little canoes, 
and those dwelling on the borders of the 
Arctic ocean adventured in the Kayaks. 

But what sea did the Phoenicians, Greeks, and Homans 
sail over ? 

The Mediterranean ; the Phoenicians going 
beyond the Strait now called Gibraltar, some 
of their ships sailed northward to Britain, 
and some along the western coast of Africa. 



A Barometer. 


Who first circumnavigated the earth? 

A small fleet of vessels commanded, at 
first, by Francis Magellan, a Portuguese 
navigator, in 1521. 







































































250 


child’s guide to knowledge. 


Did Magellan return to Europe? 

No; this adventurous navigator was killed 
by the natives of Matun, a small island not 
far from the Philippines. 

What is Circumnavigation? 

It is going entirely round the globe in a 
ship. Magellan sailed from Portugal, across 
the Atlantic, to South America, and discov¬ 
ered the Strait bearing his name. He then 
traversed the Pacific Ocean to the Asiatic 
islands; and his ships, after his death, pro¬ 
ceeding across the Indian Ocean, and round 
the Cape of Good Hope, reached Europe by 
the Atlantic. 

Was not the construction of ships improved in the fif¬ 
teenth century? 

Ships in that age were better than in any 
earlier one; but they were not nearly so 
large, nor so well finished and furnished as 
they are at the present time, nor was the 
science of Navigation so well understood. 

What is the science of Navigation ? 

It is knowledge of the means to guide a 
ship over sea. The navigator must know r 
something of Astronomy, and Nautical in¬ 
struments, and also of Meteorology. 

What are Nautical instruments? 

Nautical signifies belonging to navigation; 


CHILD S GUIDE TO KNOWLEDGE. 251 

nautical instruments are those used by sea¬ 
men. A Nautical Almanac is one necessary 
to the navigator, and made for his use. 

What is Meteorology? 

It is the science which relates to clouds, 
storms, and all changes of weather. Such 
changes may be foreseen and provided against. 

By what instrument is the weather indicated? 

By one called the Barometer. The Ba¬ 
rometer was invented by an Italian, named 
Torricelli, in 1644. This instrument consists 
of a glass tube, partly filled with mercuiy; 
when the air is lightest the mercury rises in 
the tube, and when the air is heaviest it falls. 

How does that show approaching storms? 

The tube of the Barometer has no air in it; 
air, which fills every open space, has been 
all drawn out of it, and the mercury rises 
without obstruction. The tube is set against 
what is called a Scale, on which is marked 
the state of the Atmosphere, by such words 
as Dry or Rainy. 

Why does not air from without fill the upper part of 
the tube? 

Because the top of the tube is so closely 
stopped up that no air can possibly penetrate 
into it: it is then said to be Hermetically 
sealed. 


252 child’s guide to knowledge. 

How does the Navigator know what weather will take 
place soon? 

He has so nicely observed what weather 
follows certain signs present in the Atmos¬ 
phere, and shown by the Barometer, that he 
can provide against gales and other changes 
thus shown. 

If he foresees gales and storms, what can he do ? 

He can put his ship and his men in a fit 
condition to escape the danger they would 
else be in. Thus the Barometer is to him a 
useful instrument, and Meteorology a useful 
science. 


What is a Navy ? 

It is composed of what are called Ships of 
War; these are public ships for the service 
of the country. 

How is a Navy useful to a country? 

Men of different nations are very apt to 
get angry with each other; the people of one 
country say that those of another have done 
them great wrong, and must be punished. 

In that case do not the angry nations settle their dispute 
without hurting each other ? 

Very often they do not agree upon what 
would be right for both parties, and they fight 
with and kill each other before they make 



child’s guide to knowledge. 253 

peace. The Belligerent nations, so these ene¬ 
mies are called, are then at war. 

Do they fight at sea? 

Their armies fight on land, but the Navy 
fights at sea. If the English and Americans 
are at war, the ships of the two nations fight 
when they meet together upon the ocean. 

With what do they fight? 

The ships have on board cannon, from which 
they discharge great iron balls that strike the 
ships and kill numbers of men in each. 
When one party can fight no longer, the 
commander of the ship Surrenders, or gives up. 

What becomes of the ship that Surrenders ? 

It is then the property of the Conqueror : 
he has gained a Victory, and the officers and 
men of the ship taken are made Prisoners of 
War. They are taken ashore, and confined 
until the government they serve requires them 
to be returned to their country. 

Is the Navy always engaged in fighting ? 

No; but it is always kept in readiness. 
The great ships always have their men and 
officers, always are at sea, or may be sent to 
sea. 

Does a Navy prevent persons of one country from hurt¬ 
ing others at sea ? 

The Navy is one Defence of the country. 

22 


254 child’s guide to knowledge. 

A nation which has a navy shows other na¬ 
tions that they can punish those who would 
injure them. 

Have all nations in every age of the world had Navies ? 

Every nation whose coasts are liable to be 
ravaged by men landing from other countries, 
have endeavored to drive off their enemies by 
arming ships to prevent their approach. 

Had the Greeks and Romans ships of War ? 

Their navy was on a much smaller scale 
than ours, consisting of armed Galleys. The 
Greeks are famous for two great sea-fights 
against the Persian fleets : one near the island 
of Salamis, and the other off the Promontory 
of Mycale. 

How were the Athenians advised to build a Navy ? 

Themistocles, one of their great men, advised 
them to defend their city with “wooden walls,” 
by which he meant a Navy. 

With whom did the Romans chiefly fight at sea ? 

With the Carthaginians, who dwelt on the 
coast of Africa, and from one of whose ships, 
wrecked on the shore of Italy, they first 
learned to construct a ship. In ancient times. 
Pirates often attacked peaceable people. 

What are Pirates ? 

Pirates are Robbers at sea; bad men who 
fit out ships and venture out to sea on purpose 


child’s guide to knowledge. 255 

to seize whatever ships they can meet with, 
or to land wherever they can, and carry off 
what they may find of any value. 

Have Pirates existed in all ages ? 

They have. Pirates plundered the Greek 
islands in the earliest ages ; they were a 
dreadful scourge in Italy and Sicily, and rav¬ 
aged the western coasts of Europe before and 
after the birth of Christ. 

Who were the Sea-kings ? 

The Sea-kings, or Yikings, came from the 
north of Europe, from Norway and Sweden, 
and ravaged the coasts of France and Eng¬ 
land. Some of them landed, and at length 
settled in those countries. 

Who were those settlers ? 

The Normans in France, and the Danes in 
England; the one people established them¬ 
selves in the province of France now called 
Normandy, and the Danes gave kings, Canute 
and Harold, to the English. 

Have the Northmen continued to be piratical ? 

No, they have become Christians, are now 
just and humane, and have learned to stay at 
home and take care of their own property in¬ 
stead of destroying that of other people. 

Are there any Pirates now ? 

There are many, very ferocious and destruc- 


256 child’s guide to knowledge. 

tive; savages of Borneo, and of other islands 
of the Eastern Archipelago. Ships of war, 
both English and American, are kept in those 
seas to protect merchant vessels from these 
marauders ? 

Do men of civilized countries ever commit Piracy ? 

This crime is still committed by men of 
different countries. Pirates are sometimes 
taken, brought ashore, and punished by death, 
or long imprisonment. 


What is a Merchant Ship ? 

It is one designed to serve Commerce, to 
carry the commodities of one country to an¬ 
other. An American vessel may carry flour, 
cotton, or any useful product of these States, 
to England, France, or any other country, and 
bring back silks, cutlery, and many other ar¬ 
ticles which this people want. 

Who manages the vessel ? 

The Owner fits her out for sea, having every 
thing put into her which he intends to send 
abroad, and the Captain takes charge of her 
while she is on the ocean. 

Who go to sea in the vessel ? 

The Officers of the ship: that is, the Cap¬ 
tain and the Mates, men who assist the Cap- 



child’s guide to knowledge. 257 

tain ; sometimes a Surgeon or doctor; a Car¬ 
penter ; and the Sailors, who are laboring 
men that work on board a ship; a Cook, a 
Steward, and sometimes a Stewardess. 

Who are Passengers ? 

Passengers are persons who pay for living 
in the ship while she makes a passage from 
one country to another. The Freight or Cargo 
is the goods the ship carries. 

Who is the Pilot ? 

The Pilot is a man who guides the ship out 
of the Harbor from which she sails to the open 
sea. The ship is followed by the Pilot’s boat, 
which takes him back. The Pilot also comes 
out to meet ships, and guides them into any 
Harbor. 

Who plans a ship before it is built ? 

The planner is a FTaval Architect, and the 
builders are ship-carpenters, or Shipwrights. 

What are the principal parts of a ship ? 

They are the Hull, which floats in the 
water; the Deck or floor of the ship; the 
Hold, in which the Cargo is stored ; the 
Cabin, where the Passengers sit and eat; the 
State-rooms, little apartments in which they 
sleep; the Forecastle, where the sailors eat 
and sleep; and a little apartment with the 
Caboose, or cooking-stove, besides the Steer- 
22 * 


258 child’s guide to knowledge. 

age below, in which the poorer passengers 
sleep and eat. 

Are many mechanics employed on a ship to complete her 
for sea ? 

The mast-maker, who sets np the tall poles' 
to which the sails are attached; the block- 
maker ; the rope-maker; the rigger, who fits 
the sails; the calker, who stops all cracks 
and crevices with oakum; the pump-maker, 
who puts in the ship’s pumps; the anchor- 
smith, who provides the anchors ; and others 
who paint and decorate her. 

Wlien is she ready for sea ? 

When she is knocked off the blocks of wood 
on which she was built, and Launched, that is, 
pushed into the water ; when she has been 
furnished with her instruments and provis¬ 
ions, and has taken in her cargo. 

What are her Instruments? 

Chiefly the Compass, Chronometer, Quad¬ 
rant, and Barometer; this last is not carried 
in all ships. 

What is the Eudder ? 

The Budder is that part which, moved by 
the hand, steers the vessel in the direction de¬ 
sired; the stem or Prow, the Head of the 
ship it is often called, advances first in the 
water-, the Stern is the rear part of the ship. 


child’s guide to knowledge. 259 

What does the Carver do ? 

The Carver is an artist; he carves a wooden 
image, either male or female, or perhaps the 
figure of some animal. This is the Figure¬ 
head, and, placed at the Head of the ship, is 
designed to embellish it. 


What is a Steam-ship ? 

It is a vessel Propelled, or forced along the 
water by means of steam. Vessels formerly 
were urged onward by sails chiefly. The 
wind filled the sails, and thus, as it were, 
pushed the vessel through the water which 
floated it. 

Did the ship proceed rapidly ? 

Hot always, for contrary winds would drive 
her out of her course, and, if long continued, 
would hinder her, and compel her to a long 
and wearisome passage. A Voyage is a ship’s 
passage out, and a return to the country. 

How are Steam-vessels constructed? 

They have a furnace, and a boiler contain¬ 
ing many hogsheads of water. The water, 
boiled with a very strong heat, Evaporates, or 
makes steam. The steam se^s in motion a 
machine or engine, which moves a wheel to 



260 child’s guide to knowledge. 

which paddles are attached, and thus forces 
along the Steamer. 

Is steam stronger than winds and waves ? 

It is, and serves to urge onward carriages 
and immense weights over land. Railroads 
are expressly made for the steam-engine and 
a Train of Cars. 

Which moves with the greater speed, the Car or the Ship ? 

A Rail-car may be urged over the ground 
by steam at the rate of sixty miles in an horn’, 
but a steam ship rarely advances beyond that 
of sixteen miles. 

When did the first steamer make a passage ? 

Several ingenious persons in different coun¬ 
tries attempted to make steam-vessels before 
the present century, but none succeeded per¬ 
fectly until 1807. 

Who projected or planned the first steam-vessel in these 
States ? 

Robert Fulton, of New York city, built a 
steamboat called the Clermont, which made 
her first trip up the Hudson or North River 
to Albany in August, 1807. At first her 
speed did not exceed five miles and a half in 
an hour. 

Was the Steamboat after that time employed upon other 
rivers? 

Steamboats have been used for rivet’s and 


child’s guide to knowledge. 261 

coast passages from 1815, for all such navi¬ 
gable waters. 

Were steamboats afterwards used in Europe ? 

Yes; in Scotland, England, and, gradually, 
quite to the Danube they have been, and still 
are employed, though this navigation is much 
more expensive than that of sail-ships. 

Why is steam-navigation more expensive ? 

Because of the large consumption of iuel, 
either dry wood or coal, and the number of 
attendants required to keep up the fires and 
manage the engine. 

When did the first steam-ship cross the Atlantic ? 

In 1838. In that year two steamers were 
built to cross the Ocean : the Sirius, and the 
Great Western. The Sirius started from Cork, 
and the Great Western from Bristol, in April; 
the former made the passage to New York in 
nineteen days, and the latter in fifteen. 

What was the result of this success ? 

Steam-ships have been increased and mul¬ 
tiplied ever since. They may now be met 
with on the waters of the Indian Ocean and 
on the Bed and Mediterranean Seas, and are 
so improved in construction, that every week 
a steam-ship makes a passage from England 
to Boston or to New York in eleven or twelve 
days. 


262 child’s guide to knowledge. 



A Fountain. 

What is Water? 


Water is an element in nature necessary 
to our existence as much, as Air and Fire: 
without air we could not breathe; without 
Caloric (Fire) around us in the Atmosphere, 
and in every thing else in the world, our 
bodies included, we should be hard as a 
rock. 

Should we then be human beings? 

ISTo. We might be an inanimate figure; 
but without any feeling, life, or enjoyment. 

Why is water necessary to our life? 

Because it is part of ourselves. We drink 
water, and inhale it with the air we breathe. 
It is part of our Blood, part of the Saliva in 
our mouths, part of our tears, and part of the 
perspiration that is constantly exuding from 
the Bores of our skin and from the Lungs. 









child’s guide to knowledge. 263 

If we have no water for a long time, what happens ? 

We suffer, for the want of it, intolerable 
Thirst: and if privation of it is long con¬ 
tinued, we must die; because all the fluids 
in our bodies exhale, and expel the water 
we may have drunk, and we need more to 
replenish it. 

Could we not drink some other liquid? 

Should we do so, every liquid we could 
drink, and all the meat and vegetables we 
could eat, cooked or uncooked, contain more 
or less water. 

Is water a Simple substance ? 

It is composed of two Gases, invisible to 
the eye when separated, but which, when 
united, form water. 

What gases are the constituent parts of water? 

Water is composed of Oxygen and Hy¬ 
drogen. If three pails of water should be 
divided into oxygen and hydrogen, we should 
have one pail of oxygen and two of hy¬ 
drogen. 

Is the weight of these gases the same? 

Ho; oxygen weighs eight times as much 
as hydrogen. If we have nine pounds of 
water, eight pounds of it will be oxygen, and 
one pound hydrogen. Eight-ninths of pure 
water is oxygen, and one-ninth is hydrogen. 


264 child’s guide to knowledge. 

Clan water take different forms? 

Yes: in Ice, or the solid state; in the 
Flowing, or fluid state; and in the Yaporous, 
or steam state. 

What effects these changes? 

Caloric, or heat: ice containing the least 
of all, fluid water a greater quantity, and 
steam so much caloric as to be driven with 
force out of any vessel and then dispersed in 
the air. 

How great is the expansion of water in steam ? 

One cubic inch of water will expand to a 
cubic foot of steam. 

What is the degree of this Force ? 

It is such as to move great machines for 
grinding, lifting, and sawing, besides other 
mechanical operations; and also to propel 
carriages and ships. 

Does water imbibe the taste of other substances ? 

Water, in itself, is colorless and without 
odor : its flavor is cool and refreshing; but 
if it taste of any substance, that substance 
has been added to pure water. 

What example can you give of that? 

What we call Tea and Coffee, is only the 
flavor of tea and coffee, extracted by boiling 
water; the tea-leaves and coffee-grounds re¬ 
main, but are quite tasteless. 


child’s guide to knowledge. 265 

Does water mix with every substance? 

No ; water will not mingle with Fat or 
oils : we say these have no Affinity with 
water; that is, they will not dissolve in wa¬ 
ter, nor absorb it, nor mingle with it. 

Are many substances soluble in water? 

Yes, many: many that are sweet, sour, 
bitter, astringent; many that are poisonous, 
and which are well or ill flavored, mingle 
with water, and give their taste to it. 

Is water quite pure? 

Water is rarely quite pure; gases not be¬ 
longing to it are expelled by boiling it. 

Has rain-water these gases in it? 

Kain-water does not contain other matters, 
like spring-water; but, mingling with Ex¬ 
halations from the ground, as it falls, this 
water is not free from different gases. 

Are these gases unwholesome ? 

They are not generally unwholesome. We, 
who all drink water, should b^ ill, and not 
live out half our days, if common drinking- 
water were not healthful. 

What sort of water contains the greatest quantity of 
other substances? 

Spring-water, which is strained through 
certain soils, and the crevices of rocks, often 
imbibes the flavor of lime, sulphur, or iron. 

23 


266 child’s glide to knowledge. 

When these flavors predominate in any wa¬ 
ters from the earth, their fountains or sources 
are Mineral Springs. 

What is Hard water? 

Such as does not mingle with soap, nor 
with the matter to be washed with soap. 
This is because there is lime in the water. 

Does water enter into all vegetables? 

It does. A Drought, often called a Dry 
Time, is very injurious to vegetation. The 
roots of plants drink up water from the soil; 
it rises in their stalks and trunks, helps to 
form the matter of seeds and fruits, and sus¬ 
tains the bark and leaves. 


What is the great reservoir of water on this Globe ? 

It is the Ocean, a vast body of salt water, 
covering above two-thirds of the earth, forcing 
its way and dashing its great waves into the 
Gulfs, Bays, Creeks, and Estuaries of all 
countries. 

Is the Ocean anywhere divided ? 

Ho. It is one mighty envelope of the 
earth, upon which a ship may sail completely 
round the world, and return to the harbor it 
started from. 

Do different parts of the ocean bear different names ? 

They do. Between America on one side, 



child’s guide to knowledge. 267 

and Europe and Africa on the other, it is 
called the Atlantic; between the western 
shore of America, and Asia and New Hol¬ 
land, its broad expanse is the Pacific; be¬ 
tween the western coast of New Holland and 
Africa it is the Indian Ocean; and around 
the north pole it is the Arctic. 

Do the waters of the ocean form clouds ? 

They do; the whole surface of the ocean is 
constantly evaporating, rising upward to a 
great height, and there, being condensed into 
masses called clouds, they float over distant 
lands and pour down in rain, snow, and hail. 

Is sea-water salt ? 

Sea-water contains common salt, lime, soda, 
magnesia, potash, and iron. All these sub¬ 
stances combined give sea-water a disagree¬ 
able flavor, and make it unfit to drink; they 
weigh half an ounce in every pound of sea¬ 
water. 

How have these substances become part of Sea-water '( 

They are emptied into it by the numerous 
rivers in every country which pour into it. 
The rivers pass through soils which contain 
them, and wash the salt, soda, and lime 
down to the ocean. This process has been 
going on since the ocean and the rivers 
were formed. 


268 child’s guide to knowledge. 

Does pure water only evaporate from the ocean ? 

Pure water only forms the vapor arising 
from the sea; the salt, soda, and other min¬ 
eral substances continue in that portion that 
remains in the water not evaporated. When 
sea-water is frozen, all these minerals fall to 
the bottom and leave the water pure. 

What are salt Lakes ? 

Salt lakes are such as receive rivers and 
streams that feed them with the same min¬ 
erals as are found in sea-water. 

Are any parts of the Ocean called Seas ? 

Where the sea enters a space of great ex¬ 
tent between lands on two sides, it is called 
a Sea, as the Mediterranean and the Red Seas. 

How has the Mediterranean been described ? 

“ On those shores were the four great em¬ 
pires of the world—the Assyrian, the Persian, 
the Grecian, and the Roman. All our reli¬ 
gion, almost all our arts, almost all that sets 
us above savages, has come to us from the 
shores of the Mediterranean.” 


What are Springs of water ? 

They are water contained in the earth, but 
the water of springs is not still or stagnant, 
like that in a cistern or a tub. 



child’s guide to knowledge. 269 

How do springs originate ? 

Rain descends from the clouds and falls 
upon high hills : like the water that falls on 
the house-top, the rains flow from the surface 
of the hills and penetrate into the soil. 

How are rains collected into springs ? 

The earth contains open spaces like a 
sponge; and rocks and beds of metal beneath 
the earth’s surface have many cracks and 
crevices. The water flows through these and 
makes its way underground to the beds of 
rivers. 

Do you know why by digging a well the diggers usually 
come to water ? 

Because of the quantity of water which is 
almost everywhere contained in the earth. 
If there were no high ground to receive water 
the whole earth would be overflowed. 

What is a Eiver ? 

A river is a stream of water flowing through 
a country, and at length losing itself in the 
sea, or in a lake, or in another river. High 
banks and mountains between which the river 
flows in its whole course, are the Basin of the 
river. 

What is the Bed or channel ? 

The Bed of a river is the low ground at the 
bottom of it; the Source is the beginning of 
23 * 


270 child’s guide to knowledge. 

it. A river is formed of many springs find¬ 
ing their way out of the ground at the foot or 
sides of hills, and pouring one after another 
into one stream. 

What is a Brook ? 

A Brook is a smaller collection of water 
than a river, and formed, like a river, by the 
junction of springs. A Bivulet, or little river, 
is one of those wandering streams which, 
meandering through fields and woods, over 
rocks and stones, at last loses itself in a river. 

What is a Tributary ? 

A Tributary is a river which falls into an¬ 
other river. The Missouri is a tributary of the 
Mississippi river. Tributary streams are some¬ 
times called Affluents and Feeders, or branches. 

What are Banks of rivers ? 

Banks are the solid land rising above the 
stream which confines or keeps it within its 
bed. The borders of the ocean are its Shore 
or Coast. 

What is a Delta ? 

A Delta is land lying between the diverging 
branches of a river. The Delta is so called 
because the land so inclosed is shaped like 
the Greek letter Delta a. 

Where is the Delta formed ? 

Not very distant from the mouth of the 


child’s guide to knowledge. 271 

river; approaching the sea the river spreads 
to much greater breadth, and land, properly 
an island, fills the space, leaving a passage for 
the water on both sides. 

Has the river inclosing a Delta more than two passages ? 

Sometimes the water divides into several 
streams, and all but two of these pass through 
the delta. The Ganges approaches the Bay 
of Bengal through ten branches ; the Danube 
empties into the Black Sea through seven; and 
the Nile finishes its course in the Mediterra¬ 
nean through five. 

Does a river ever overflow its hanks ? 

Yes; when great rains have swollen the 
springs, and they have poured an unusual 
quantity of water into the river, it rises to 
greater height, and flows over the low lands 
upon its borders. 

What is this overflow called ? 

When very abundant and destructive it is 
an Inundation, and when the river is small its 
overflow is a Freshet. Rivers, in hot seasons, 
are often very low, and the water is shallow. 
In very cold weather they freeze over, and 
make solid ice. 

Does the ocean ever freeze ? 

Sometimes near the shore it freezes in win¬ 
ter. On the borders of the Arctic Ocean are 


272 child’s guide to knowledge. 

great masses of ice which never thaw; these 
are Icebergs, and are as high as a lofty church 
spire, and often cover more space than ten 
churches. 

Do Icebergs always remain in the Arctic Ocean ? 

Hot always, they sometimes float down into 
the Atlantic Ocean, and create great cold 
wherever they approach. 

Are icebergs dangerous ? 

When an iceberg comes unexpectedly upon 
a vessel, if it strikes her she is instantly sunk. 

How can overflowing of the sea or of rivers be guarded 
against ? 

By raising great banks of earth called 
Dykes, where the water is likely to overflow. 

Do streams of water flow in a straight course ? 

Ho, they wind and turn in many directions; 
this is a Sinuous course, and the windings are 
Sinuosities. 

What is a Canal ? 

A canal is a channel cut in the ground, 
through which water is conducted with design, 
that boats may make the passage and trans¬ 
port goods by a shorter track than could else 
be done. 

What is the longest canal in the United States ? 

It is the Erie canal, extending from Lake 
Erie to Albany, above three hundred miles, 
and emptying its water into the Hudson river. 


child’s guide to knowledge. 273 


What are thus connected ? 

The waters of the great lakes and those of 
the Atlantic Ocean. 

What is a Bridge ? 

A Bridge is a passage made from one bank 
of a river to the opposite bank. It is com¬ 
monly a road of planks or stones laid upon 
arches called Piers. The piers stand fast in 
the water beneath, while the bridge spans its 
banks. 

What is a Forest I 

It is a large number of trees standing near 
one another, not planted by the hand of man, 
but the natural growth of the soil. 

What is the difference between a Forest and an Orchard ? 

The forest is the spontaneous growth of the • 
earth; the Orchard is a plantation of fruit¬ 
bearing trees, designed to afford sustenance 
to human beings, as an apple-orchard or a 
peach-orchard. 

Where are forests commonly found ? 

Forests exist in all countries, but they are 
usually found of great extent in what is called 
a new country, a country that is not much 
inhabited nor cultivated. 

What has occupied the forest for ages ? 

Animals of divers sorts. Some burrow in the 
ground beneath the trees, as rabbits and squir- 


274 child’s guide to knowledge. 

rels, and some shelter themselves in the bushes: 
birds build in the branches, and insects innu¬ 
merable feed upon the leaves and bark of the 
trees. 

Where are the Tropical forests ? 

They are in countries called tropical, in 
South America, and in the West India isl¬ 
ands ; in Southern Asia and the islands of the 
Eastern Archipelago. 

Does a tropical forest resemble those of colder countries ? 

Both contain trees, but those of the tropic 
land are different from those of colder coun¬ 
tries, and the animals which abound in the 
former are different from those of the latter. 

What are the principal trees of tropical countries ? 

The Banian-tree, the Teak-tree, many fruit¬ 
bearing trees, and all the Palms and Cocoa- 
nut trees, besides Nutmeg and Cinnamon 
trees. 

What animals abound in these forests ? 

A tropical forest exhibits Parrots, Macaws, 
Peacocks, and the gorgeous Bird of Paradise, 
besides many other birds of smaller size and 
the most brilliant plumage. 

What quadrupeds are found in these forests ? 

Nimble monkeys enliven them with their 
gambols, and the Orang-Outang stalks be¬ 
neath the trees, in some resemblance to the 


CHILD’S GUIDE TO KNOWLEDGE. 275 

human form; while the majestic Elephant 
and the Khinoceros, of magnificent bulk and 
harmless habits, subsist in these shades. 

Are any ferocious animals found among them? 

The terrible Lion, the cruel Tiger, and the 
most ravenous beasts of prey are natives of 
these forests. 

What is Bamboo? 

It is a running plant, which grows in a 
wild state in tropical forests. Chairs, and 
many articles brought from the East, are 
made of Bamboo. A stick of it resembles 
a cornstalk, dry, and stripped of its leaves; 
but it is harder, stronger, and much thicker 
and longer. 

Is bamboo very useful? 

It is very useful. It grows large enough 
to form poles, canes, and even beams of 
small houses. When slit into strips, it is 
woven into mats, baskets, window-blinds, 
and chair-bottoms. 

Does bamboo make paper? 

Bruised and crushed in water, by the ad¬ 
dition of a little cotton, the whole well beaten, 
it forms paper like that used in China. 

Does Bamboo climb like the grape-vine ? 

No; bamboo is a Creeper, not a Climber. 
the stems are often from thirty to fifty feet 


276 child’s guide to knowledge. 

in length. A great number of these grow 
over a large space of ground, intertwisting 
together, some kinds having spines or thorns 
upon them. 

What is this mass of bamboo called? 

This thick growth of bamboo is called a 
Jungle, and cannot be entered without dan¬ 
ger, for in its impenetrable shelter many wild 
beasts make their Lairs. 

Are jungles ever found near towns ? 

They are allowed to remain there, because 
the Cane affords such excellent materials for 
many necessary uses. Near Calcutta, and 
many Indian villages, the jungle is suffered 
to grow. 

Are not the inhabitants afraid of the wild boasts which 
harbor there? 

They watch for them, and kill them; but 
wherever men live, in considerable numbers, 
predaceous animals naturally fear and avoid 
them, though, watching an opportunity, they 
will fall often upon their domestic animals. 


What is the Teak-tree ? 

The Teak is a very valuable wood, which 
is abundantly produced in the island of Java, 
and commonly used for the building of ships: 
it is sold in great quantities. 



child’s guide to knowledge. 277 

What is Timber? 

Timber is the trunks of trees, with the 
bark hewn off, and shaped into square beams. 
Such beams, when sawn apart in thicknesses 
of three or four inches, are Planks, and when 
cut thinner are Boards. Beams of different 
woods, Planks, and Boards are often called 
Lumber. 

What is tho Bread-fruit tree? 

The bread-fruit tree is a native of India 
and the South Sea islands (those of the Pa¬ 
cific Ocean). It is a tree of moderate size, 
attaining only to forty feet in height in 
Bengal. 

Why is it called the Bread-fruit tree ? 

Because it produces a large nut, the kernel 
of which is used for bread. This fruit is of 
the bulk of a middle-sized melon. It is 
smooth and green like a w^ater-melon. 

Is this fruit cooked for use ? 

It is roasted, and then becomes soft, tender, 
and white, resembling the crumb of a wheat- 
loaf: it must be eaten new, or it becomes hard 
and choky. 

Who subsist much upon it? 

The South Sea islanders feed upon it con¬ 
stantly, and the English have transplanted 
trees of this fruit to the West India islands: 

24 


278 child’s guide to knowledge. 

however, the negroes in those islands prefer 
the native fruits. The flavor of the bread¬ 
fruit is said to resemble that of the Yam 
and Potato. 

Is the Potato a native of hot countries ? 

The potato grows in hot and cold countries. 
It was first taken to England about 1586, 
by Sir Walter Raleigh, who had found it in 
Virginia, where he supposed it to be indige¬ 
nous. 

Was the potato soon cultivated in England ? 

At first, it was only cultivated in gardens 
as a curiosity. A gentleman in Ireland, who 
received a present of some potatoes, first in¬ 
troduced them into that island. There, in 
the cour&e of time, they have become a prin¬ 
cipal article of food to laboring people. 

Whence is the name, Potato, derived? 

This name was given in Portugal. The Pe¬ 
ruvians called it pa-pa; the Spaniards altered 
this name to ba-ta-ta, which signifies “ of the 
earththis the Portuguese softened into Po¬ 
tato. The Spaniards and Portuguese had 
imported this useful vegetable before Sir Wal¬ 
ter Raleigh did so. 

When did the people of England adopt potatoes for the 
table ? 

It was one hundred and fifty years from its 


child’s guide to knowledge. 279 

introduction before potatoes were cultivated 
in fields, produced a large crop, and were sold 
in market in Britain. 

Have potatoes deteriorated latterly ? 

Yes; they have decayed in the ground, or 
immediately after having been gathered in; 
but they are still cultivated, though they are 
not so cheap and abundant as formerly. 

Are Figs produced in liot countries ? 

The Fig grows on a small tree, not in very 
hot countries. Our best figs are brought from 
Smyrna, in Asia Minor, now part of Asiatic 
Turkey. Figs grow in the open air in Georgia, 
and Florida, and may be produced in colder 
countries when the tree is sheltered. 

Where does the Mahogany-tree grow? 

In Honduras, a part of Central America. 
South America produces the valuable tree 
which affords India-rubber. 

What is the proper name of it ? 

Caoutchouc. The tree which produces this 
substance ranks among the most magnificent 
of forest trees. It may be distinguished by 
its dense, lofty, and ample crown, being one 
hundred feet high, and sending out extensive 
branches on all sides. 

How is its juice procured ? 

By Transverse incisions ; that is, cuts made 


280 child’s guide to knowledge. 

across the bark. Under these incisions recep¬ 
tacles are placed in which the juice, flowing 
from the wounds of the tree, is collected in a 
fluid state. 

What is the appearance of it ? 

When this juice first flows out it is white, 
and as thick in consistence as cream : when it 
ceases to flow, it is spread over moulds and 
dried in smoke; then it is fit for use. 

What are the uses of India-rubber ? 

It will make boots and overshoes, bags and 
cushions, besides being manufactured into 
garments impenetrable to water. One of its 
most convenient uses is effacing pencil marks 
from paper. It has been so used for about 
eighty years—since 1770. 

What is one remarkable property of India-rubber ? 

Its Elasticity ; that property in bodies which 
makes them, when drawn out, return by a 
spontaneous motion to their first form and 
dimensions. 

What does Elasticity consist of? 

Elasticity consists of Expansion and Con¬ 
traction. Whatever can be stretched beyond 
its natural length or breadth possesses Expan¬ 
sibility ; and whatever expanded substance 
returns of itself to its natural size or a smaller 
space, possesses Contractibility. 


child’s guide to knowledge. 281 

Does Gutta Percha resemble India-rubber ? 

Iii some respects it does. Gutta Percha is 
also the solidified juice of a tree. This tree 
grows in Malacca and Borneo. It is obtained 
from the sap like India-rubber. 

To what use is Gutta Percha applied ? 

It makes water-proof soles to shoes and 
boots : it does not soften or become stiff, as it 
may be heated or cooled, unless it be softened 
in boiling water, and is very adhesive. It has 
been used in Europe since 1843. 


Have Forests any effect on Climate ? 

The forests serve as a garment to the earth 
in winter, keeping it warm by shutting in the 
central heat which would otherwise radiate 
more rapidly into space, leaving the earth 
much colder than it now is beneath the shelter 
of trees. 

What effect have forests in summer ? 

They mitigate the extreme heat of the sun 
which falls upon their tops, while their shade 
upon the ground, caused by interrupting the 
direct rays of the sun, prevents excessive dry¬ 
ing up of the soil. 

Do men and animals derive especial benefits from forests ? 

Wild animals have their abode, and rear 
24* 



282 child’s guide to knowledge. 

their young in them, finding there “ from 
storms a shelter, and from heat a shade;” 
and men find in forest trees that precious ar¬ 
ticle, wood, which furnishes them with many 
necessaries and comforts. 

Should wood he used carefully, and trees be protected ? 

It takes centuries for some trees to grow to 
great magnitude, and years, more or less, to 
make any tree valuable ; therefore, wood 
should never be wasted, nor trees needlessly 
cut down. 

What is the cutting down of forests in a new country 
called ? 

Burning, or cutting down trees, and draw¬ 
ing the stumps and roots from the soil, is 
called “clearing the land.” When this is 
done, the farmer may build a house and barns; 
he may keep cattle, and cultivate the fields. 

What effect has rain upon forests ? 

The rain falling upon abundance of leaves, 
or foliage, is poured slowly from them upon 
the ground ; the earth, little by little, imbibes 
the water, which gradually penetrates to 
springs and supplies them. 

Would not treeless ground do the same service? 

No: because the rain would pour off rapidly 
as from the roof of a house, and not be so 
equally distributed, but flow directly to the 
bottom of a hill or mountain. 


child’s guide to knowledge. 283 

Do not some trees flourish best in dry soils ? 

Some seem to prefer a high and dry posi- 
tion* and many grow best in low and wet 
ground : the Willow is one of these. 


Are there any other uses of trees than those you have 
mentioned ? 

By adding to the beauty of a country, 
forests and shade trees about our dwellin^s 
are of vast importance. They are, when 
planted out in rows on the borders of streets, 
“ a great ornament and comfort. Strip the hills 
of a country of their trees, and they would 
present a sad and gloomy aspect. 

Are there no tracts on the globe destitute of trees ? 

There are many such tracts : in these States 
called Prairies; in South America, Pampas ; 
in Russia, Steppes ; and in Africa, the Desert. 
The prairies of the Western States are fertile, 
covered with grass and native flowers; the 
deserts of Africa and of Arabia are formed 
of sand. 

Are there no trees in these deserts? 

At distances of many miles apart a cluster 
of palms may sometimes be seen growing 
upon a fertile spot in Africa: this is called 
an Oasis, which also affords water. The 



284 child’s guide to knowledge. 

traveller, who has not for days, perhaps, seen 
a tree, rejoices in the sight of this grove of 
the desert. 

What are the native trees of the Middle States and of 
New England ? 

Those which flourish in these States, either 
indigenous or naturalized from other countries, 
are, principally, the Oak, Elm, Ash, Beech, 
Hickory, Wild Cherry, Maple, Chestnut, Lin¬ 
den, Buttonwood, and Birches. 

Are there not also Evergreens ? 

These are Pines, Purs, Spruces, Hemlock, 
and Cedar. 

What is the effect of Autumn upon trees in this region ? 

The autumnal woods change the green of 
summer to innumerable hues : every tree has 
then its own color, or many succeeding colors. 
The oak leaves become scarlet, yellow, and 
brown; the sugar-maple comes out in rich 
yellow and orange, and the sumach shrub in 
brilliant crimson. 

Do other vegetables attach themselves to trees ? 

Yes: Mosses, Eungi, and beautiful Climb¬ 
ers. The mosses upon old forest trees are of 
many colors : different greens, purple, white, 
and brown; the fungi, resembling a mush¬ 
room, but hard and leather-like, attach to de¬ 
cayed and prostrate trees ; while the ivy, 


child’s guide to knowledge. 285 


dodder, and other creepers, wreathe the trunks 
of the living. 


What is one of the most valuable trees in the world ? 

The Oak, whiqh is of many kinds or Va¬ 
rieties ; as White oak, Black oak, Red oak, 
and Shrub oaks. These differ in size, in the 
color of the wood, and somewhat in the 
shape of their leaves : still, they so much 
resemble each other, that when seen any¬ 
where they are all known to be of one spe¬ 
cies—to be Oaks. 

What is the country of the oak ? 

The Oak, the Chestnut, and the Hazel are 
to be found in all temperate regions of the 
earth. While the Palms are the glory of 
hot countries, and the Pines of cold regions, 
the Oak is the friend of mankind in those 
parts of the world which enjoy a middle 
temperature. 

For what is the oak remarkable ? 

For the firmness and durability of its wood, 
for the strength and Tenacity of its roots, for 
the tannin contained in its bark, and for the 
majesty of its appearance. 

Was the oak ever regarded with peculiar reverence ? 

It was. Before men were acquainted with 
the true God, they were Pagans, and wor- 



286 child’s guide to knowledge. 

shipped false gods: these they often con¬ 
sulted, and worshipped in groves of oaks. 



An Oak. 

Who worshipped in oak groves, particularly ? 

The Greeks resorted to an oak grove, at 
Dodona, to consult their god Jupiter; and 
the Britons, before and after the birth of 
Christ, worshipped in groves of oak, being- 
taught to do so by their priests, the Druids. 

What is the fruit, or seed of the oak ? 

The fruit of all plants is the Seed, or it 
contains the seed; the pulpy apple contains 
seeds, and the luscious cherry incloses the 
Pip, or stone, so called from its hardness, 
which is the seed. The seed of the oak is 
the Acorn. 

Does the Acorn grow within a husk ? 

No: while the Chestnut is enveloped in a 


child’s guide to knowledge. 287 

prickly husk, and the hickory-nut in one 
thick and bitter, but without spines, the 
acorn is naked; a small oval nut, with a 
smooth skin, set in a pretty cup. 

Is the kernel fit for food ? 

Not for human food, but it is nutritious 
to swine. The oak, growing naturally in 
Europe, Asia, and in the northern parts of 
Africa, contributes to the subsistence of 
many kinds of animals. 



A Stag. 


What are these animals ? 

In Europe, the Stag and Wild Boar winter 
upon acorns; in Asia, Pheasants and Wood. 




288 


CHILD S GUIDE TO KNOWLEDGE. 


pigeons share them with animals of the Deer 
kind. In our own native forests, the Bear, 
the Raccoon, the Squirrel, the wild Pigeon, 
and the wild Turkey delight in them. 

Where were Swine fed principally on acorns ? 

The people of England, nine hundred years 
ago, valued the oak chiefly for its acorns, 
which fed their swine. 

Did they gather the acorns for them ? 

JSCo; a man whose office was that of Swine¬ 
herd, drove them daily in a Herd or Flock to 
the woods, where they fed themselves on acorns. 

Is a similar use made of them in our country ? 

Yes; in the State of Virginia, swine turned 
in summer into oak woods, are collected in 
autumn, and killed. Thus fed, they are 
small, but their flesh is well-flavored, and 
Virginia hams are much liked for that reason. 

What do the oaks of Spain afford ? 

The substance of Cork; this, sent exten¬ 
sively to other countries, is oak bark. In Eng¬ 
land, oak bark is used to tan sole-leather. 


Is the Oak-tree long-lived ? 

The oak springs from the acorn; this falls 
beneath the parent tree, takes root, and at first 
thrusts up the slender shaft that is destined to 



child’s guide to knowledge. 


289 


become the lofty oak, or it is planted by the 
hand of man. In either case it may last cen¬ 
turies. 

Does the oak grow rapidly ? 

Ho ; like all natural productions designed 
for long endurance, it matures slowly. An 
oak of the larger kinds when thirty years old 
may be forty feet high, and may then be cut 
down for its various uses. 

Is that height its greatest size ? 

The oak requires one hundred and fifty 
years to attain its greatest amplitude, nor does 
it then decay; there are oaks yet standing 
supposed to be one thousand years old. 

Is an oak easily distinguished ? 

Yes ; persons accustomed to observe know 
the oak at sight when stripped of its leaves. 
The limbs stretch out horizontally, they are of 
a size uncommon to other trees, and are not 
straight, but crook and bend upwards and 
downwards, right and left. 

To what purposes is oak wood applied ? 

It furnishes the best ship-timber; carriage 
and wagon builders use it for spokes of 
wheels. Many parts of agricultural instru¬ 
ments are made of oak wood, as the handles 
of ploughs, spades, and axes, and the tongues 
and axle-trees of carts. 

25 


290 child’s guide to knowledge. 

Is oak bark used by tbe tanner ? 

Not so much in this country as in England. 
Hemlock bark being cheaper and more abun¬ 
dant, is more used for tanning in the United 
States. 

Will oak wood make charcoal ? 

All wood may be charred or burnt to coal, 
but the best charcoal for sale is made of oak. 

What are oak-apples ? 

The oak-apple is so called because it looks 
like a small apple. It is not a fruit, but an 
Excrescence of the oak. 

What is an Excrescence ? 

An Excrescence is like a wart on the hand. 
It grows in like manner upon some tree or 
animal. The oak-apple, sometimes called a 
gall-nut, is made by an insect. The female 
perforates the leaf of an oak and deposits eggs 
in it. The leaf then swells out to a spherical 
form often two inches in diameter. 

What is a Diameter ? 

A Diameter is the measure of a Circle or 
a Sphere, through the centre, from side to side. 

How much greater is the Circle itself than its Diameter ? 

The Diameter measures about one third of 
the circumference of a ball or Sphere; there¬ 
fore the oak-apple which measures two inches 
in diameter, in Circumference is six inches. 


child’s guide to knowledge. 291 

Where are the insect’s eggs deposited ? 

A leaf has two sides, called the upper and 
under surface: these are two very thin cuticles, 
which look like gauze when dry, and parted ; 
between them is a thin layer of green pulp, 
and many fibres fine as lace. Between these 
two parts of the leaf the insect burrows. 

When does the gall-insect come out ? 

When she has left the eggs, her Progeny, 
that is, her little ones, follow when ready. 
The leaf thus occupied swells to the size of a 
small apple. The insects leave a little hole 
in it through which they have escaped ; and, 
at first green, it becomes brown and dry. 

What does the oak-apple contain? 

One kind, produced on a particular species 
of oak, contains a powder which is a strong 
Astringent, that is, it draws up pores of skins 
like Tannin and Alum. 

Can any use be made of this gall-nut ? 

It may be used to dye cloths black, and to 
make ink-powder. 

What verses have been made on the Oak, describing it as 
full grown and beginning to decay ? 

“ See where the oak its awful structure rears, 
The massy growth of twice an hundred years; 
Survey his rugged arms, with moss o’ergrown, 
His lusty arms in rude disorder thrown, 


292 child’s guide to knowledge. 

His forking branches wide at distance spread, 
And dark’ning half the sky his lofty head. 

“ His airy top the clamorous birds invest, 
And crowd the waving boughs with many a 
nest. 

Midway the nimble squirrel builds his bower, 
And sharp-billed pies the insect tribe devour 
That gnaw beneath the bark their secret ways, 
While unperceived the stately pile decays.” 

“ Clamorous Birds,” signify loud-cawing 
birds like the Crow. “ Sharp-billed pies,” 
mean Woodpeckers, which may often be seen 
piercing the bark of trees. 


What are Pines ? 

They are evergreen-trees; they belong to a 
family sometimes called the Coniferse, because 
the seeds of all are contained in Cones : they 
are also called the Fir family. 

Are there many varieties of these trees ? 

Yes : Pines, Firs, Junipers, Cypresses, 
Larches, Hemlocks, Spruces, and Yews, all 
belong to this natural group of trees. 

Where do they grow ? 

They inhabit all parts of the world where 
other trees grow, and may be seen in regions 



child’s guide to knowledge. 293 

so cold that no other will flourish there, as 
towards the Esquimaux country in North 
America, and also in the northern parts of 
the eastern continent. 



Pine-trees. 


Do the Pines grow to great height ? 

The White Pine is much the tallest of our 
native trees. Some are still standing in New 
England reaching nearly to two hundred feet. 
Most of the trees of this family have a straight 
cylindrical trunk, and are often of great size 
and height. 

What are Pine Cones ? 

A Pine Cone is shaped like a pine-apple, 
hut consists of rows of woody scales, one row 
below another, and at the bottom of each 
scale lie two seeds. When quite ripe, the 
25* 



294 child’s guide to knowledge. 

scales open, and the seeds, falling out, sow 
themselves in the ground. 

Are the Cones of all the Coniferse of one size ? 

No : different sorts of trees have differently 
sized cones ; some are shorter and some longer 
than others. The cone is sometimes not bigger 
than a small thimble, and sometimes it is as 
large, when the scales open, as to fill a pint 
bowl: there are all-sized cones between these. 

Are seeds of the largest cones useful to man for food ? 

There is a kind of pine in Italy called the 
Stone Pine, the kernels of which are eaten. 
Birds pick out the seeds of many sorts, though 
they are so well defended by the woody scales. 
The seeds of some pines require three years, 
and others four years, to become perfectly 
ripe. The stone pine takes four years. 

Are the leaves of the pines all alike ? 

They are generally needle-shaped, though 
differently arranged on sprays of the branches. 
The leaves of different Coniferse may be re¬ 
garded as long needles or short pins, some¬ 
times growing in little clusters, and sometimes 
placed regularly opposite on the sides of a 
twig. 

Is pine wood used in building ? 

Yes; in ships and houses it is much em¬ 
ployed. From pines the tall masts of ships 


child’s guide to knowledge. 295 

are made round and smooth for the purpose; 
planks and hoards sawn from pine logs make 
the doors, floors, and finishing of houses. 

Is household furniture made of pine wood ? 

Much of our furniture is made of pine wood, 
as common tables, and boxes for many uses. 
Other articles, as bureaus and wash-stands, 
painted over tastefully or plainly, are com¬ 
mon. 

What are Juices of pines ? 

They are what is called resinous, forming 
Resin, Turpentine, Tar, and Pitch. These are 
extracted from the wood. 

Does this resinous juice abound in these trees ? 

It does, and may be seen at the ends of 
sticks of dry pine wood. This is Turpentine, 
and has a strong odor. Yellow resin is ob¬ 
tained from turpentine boiled down. 

How are Spirits of Turpentine made ? 

By putting turpentine into a vessel with 
water and distilling it. This substance is often 
put into house-paint to hasten the drying of 
it; it is also an ingredient in varnish, and is 
sometimes used in medicine. 

Are spirits of turpentine injurious to the skin? 

This is what is called an Acrid substance, 
and will, by imprudent contact with it, destroy 
the skin, and do much harm to animals. It 


296 child’s guide to knowledge. 

is very combustible, and should be used with 
care. 

How is Tar made ? 

Tar is made by burning split pine, both root 
and branch, very slowly, excluding the air as 
much as possible. The resinous matter of the 
wood, imbibing some of the smoke, falls into 
the bottom of the cavity in which the burning 
takes place, and becomes Tar. 

What is Pitch ? 

Pitch is tar and resin melted together. 
Lampblack is the soot collected from mingled 
pitch and tar. Burgundy Pitch, used for 
plasters by rheumatic persons, is obtained 
from Norway Spruce. 

What is the use of Tar ? 

Tar and pitch both exclude moisture, there¬ 
fore the bottom of boats, and the ropes used 
on board ship, are tarred. 

Is Pitch mentioned in the Bible? 

Yes; the mother of Moses made a little 
cradle or bed for her infant, “ an ark of bul¬ 
rushes, and daubed it with Slime and with 
Pitch, and put the child therein; and she laid 
it in the flags by the river’s brink.” 

Was this Pine-pitch ? 

It is supposed to have been Asphaltum, a 
substance so like Kesinous Pitch that it is 


child’s guide to knowledge. 297 


called “ Mineral Pitch.” It was used in Egypt. 
(Exodus, Chapter I.) 


Do pines require a rich soil ? 

No; they will grow in a poor sandy soil, 
and are often planted in sandy places to make 
their dreariness more cheerful. In North 
Carolina there are large tracts of land called 
Pine Barrens. 

Can such land he cleared and cultivated ? 

Its sands could not be made productive, 
while its pine forests are profitable, because 
abundance of pitch and tar may be made 
from them. 

What is Hemlock? 

It is a conifera which is valuable for its 
bark. This bark is of a red color, and is 
ground up into the substance called Tan, for 
use of the tanner; it gives the red color to sole- 
leather. Hemlock bark, when quite dry, is 
sometimes used for fuel. 

What is Spruce ? 

Spruce is another conifera; it is most val¬ 
uable for its wood. It is used for making lad¬ 
ders ; is suitable for small timbers or beams, 
and of it shingles are made. A kind of beer 
is made of the young shoots of the Spruce. 



298 child’s guide to knowledge. 

What is the Larch? 

It is a member of the same family. The 
Larches are Deciduous, that is, their leaves 
fall off in autumn ; therefore the Larch is not 
an evergreen, though its leaves are needle- 
shaped, and its wood resembles other Coni- 
ferse, while it is hard and durable. 

What did the Indians call this tree ? 

They called it the Hacmatac, a name it still 
bears in Hew England. The pointed leaves 
of this tree are arranged in little tufts, or 
clusters. 

What is the Cedar of Lebanon ? 

It is a very celebrated tree, growing prin¬ 
cipally on Mount Lebanon, or rather on the 
Libanus, an extensive range of mountains in 
Syria. Some of these trees are cultivated in 
gentlemen’s grounds in England. 

What are the special properties of these trees ? 

The Cedar of Lebanon throws out long 
branches horizontally, bending downward, and 
bearing dark foliage. The whole tree takes a 
pyramidal form, and the interior wood of it is 
of a deep pink color. 

What are the properties of this wood ? 

It is not only durable, but beautiful, and 
easily wrought. David, the Hebrew King, 
ten centuries before Christ, said, “ I dwell in 


child’s guide to knowledge. 299 

a house of Cedar,” which means that the 
palace in which he resided was finished with 
this wood of Libanus. 

How did Solomon use it? 

Solomon, after his father David’s death, 
erected a splendid church, or Temple, on 
Mount Moriah in Jerusalem, and he procured 
large quantities of the Cedar wood for this 
grand edifice. 

Do Cedar forests remain in Syria ? 

They still exist, and afford oaks and pines, 
besides the famous cedars. Yast quantities 
of timber, of all these kinds, are exported an¬ 
nually to Egypt. 

What is Eed Cedar ? 

It is an American tree of no very inviting 
appearance, frequently seen in barren spots, 
and along road-sides. The inner wood of it 
is a beautiful darkish red, and sweet scented. 
It makes excellent posts for fences, and is 
usually employed as the wood of lead pencils. 

Does cedar wood make good staves ? 

They make staves for pails and nice tubs, 
and also make shelves, and bottoms of draw¬ 
ers, which are liked for their aromatic scent. 

What is Cypress ? 

It is a low evergreen tree, a native of Eu¬ 
rope, Asia, and some parts of North America. 


300 child’s guide to knowledge. 

By the ancients the Cypress was considered 
an emblem of Immortality; the moderns re¬ 
gard it as significant of Death. It may prop¬ 
erly represent both: 

What is Arbor Vitae ? 

Arbor Yitse is a small evergreen when it 
grows towards the sea-side; it is then a low 
tree of compact foliage, chiefly inclosing and 
covering the trunk. It is shaped like a long 
pineapple. Planted in lines the Arbor Yitae 
forms a handsome hedge. 

Does the Arbor Vitae grow to great size ? 

In some situations it reaches the height of 
fifty feet. In the neighborhood of Niagara 
Falls the Arbor Yitae grows wild. 


What is the Laurel ? 

In this country the Laurel is a very beauti¬ 
ful shrub growing wild in the woods. Bota¬ 
nists count four hundred species, some of which 
attain to much greater size than our Laurels. 

Are Laurels found in Europe ? 

The only one indigenous to Europe is the 
Bay-tree, also known in Asia. The Psalm 
mentions men who flourish “like the green 
bay-tree.” 



child’s guide to knowledge. 301 

Was this tree ever very famous ? 

It was. Wreaths of laurel were often given, 
as medals are now given, as marks of respect. 

Upon whom were laurels bestowed ? 

Upon many persons on different occasions. 
Among the Greeks, when a man composed a 
fine poem which was read in public, he would 
be crowned with Laurel, and esteemed it to be 
a great honor. Persons who excelled in other 
ways were also crowned with Laurel. 

Did the Romans make a like use of Laurel ? 

The Homans bestowed a Laurel crown, or 
one of olive or of oak leaves, on their generals 
and Emperors. At length the Emperors wore 
a crown of golden leaves imitated from the 
green crown. 

Do we possess other trees much esteemed in Europe ? 

Yes, one especially; we call it the Syca¬ 
more and the Button-wood, but its proper 
name is Platanus, in English the Plane-tree. 
Button-wood is a good name on account of the 
balls, containing the seeds, that grow upon it; 
but Sycamore is the name of another tree. 

What use was made of this tree ? 

It served principally for a shade tree. In 
the ancient city of Sparta, along the river Eu- 
rotas, were planted rows of the Plane-tree, 
which afforded a delightful shelter from the 
warm sunbeams. 


26 


302 child’s guide to knowledge. 

Did other Greeks besides the Spartans cherish the Plane- 
tree? 

It was the greatest favorite of the Romans; 
they planted it around their country houses 
for its grateful shade in summer, and its free 
admission of the sun in winter. 

How did the Eomans procure the Plane-tree ? 

It was conveyed from Greece to Sicily, from 
Sicily to Italy, and from Italy to Spain and 
France; the latter was then Gaul, and there, 
when the trees became lofty and afforded an 
ample shade, people would pay for the privi¬ 
lege of a seat beneath one. 

Do the Asiatics value the Plane ? 

The Persians have a great admiration for 
this tree, which they call the Chinar. There, 
where timber trees are rare, they make furni¬ 
ture of its wood. 

What is the native country of the Plane ? 

It is found in Europe, Asia, northern Afri¬ 
ca, and in North America. There are two 
species of it, the Oriental and the Occidental 
Plane. Oriental signifies coming from the 
east, and Occidental from the west. 

How is the Plane-tree known at sight ? 

First by its bark, which is of a light green¬ 
ish-gray color, upon which appear dark pieces 


child's guide to knowledge. 


303 


of bark that seem to be scaling off tbe under 
bark; and then by its balls, and its thick 
foliage. 

Is the Plane a large tree ? 

It is among the loftiest and largest trees 
known. When very old one side of the trunk 
will often open and seem to expand, leaving 
a cavity within, and a canopy of leaves above. 
One of these trees in Lycia of Asia Minor, 
thus hollowed out, once received a company 
of nineteen persons. 

Have Plane-trees lately decayed ? 

All over the world, since 1841, Plane-trees 
seem to be dying out, except some that are 
very young; these promise to supply the loss 
of the older trees. 

Is the wood useful in this country ? 

It is not used for mechanical purposes, but 
when dry makes good fuel for stoves. 


What is the Magnolia? 

It is a tree famous for its flowers, and is a 
native of these States. In Massachusetts the 
native Magnolia is only a shrub, but in the 
Southern States it attains to great size. 

When transplanted does the Magnolia flourish ? 

It does ; one of these trees is growing per¬ 
fectly well in the Botanic Garden near Boston. 



304 child’s guide to knowledge. 

Is the Shrub Magnolia a beautiful specimen ? 

No plant in every season, and in every con 
dition, is more beautiful. It thrives in wet 
ground, and produces flowers almost as large 
and fragrant as the Water-lily. 

Which of our native trees resembles the Magnolia ? 

The Tulipefera, or Tulip-tree. Its large 
solitary flowers have the size and appearance 
of a water-lily. Its wood serves the carpenter 
for many of the uses of pine. 

Does the Tulip-tree reacii to a great size ? 

In Canada West, and in the Western States, 
it often grows to the height of one hundred 
and forty feet; but in New England its di¬ 
mensions are less ample. 

What is meant by Solitary Flowers ? 

Those which grow singly on a stalk, and not 
in a cluster, like those of the Laburnum and 
Catalpa trees. 

What trees are they ? 

The Catalpa is a native of the Southern 
States. In the Middle States it is only known 
as an ornamental tree with leaves of a palish 
green. It flowers early in July, and has a 
beautiful appearance. The flowers hang in 
full white clusters, variegated with purple and 
yellow. 


child’s glide to knowledge. 305 

What is the Laburnum ? 

The Laburnum is a native of the Alps. It 
flourishes in England, and is somewhat planted 
in ornamented grounds in this country. Early 
in June it puts out pendulous clusters of yel¬ 
low flowers ; these are followed by long, black, 
seed-bearing pods. 

Is the Elm an American tree ? 

One species of it is called the American 
Elm. This is the lofty and graceful tree pre¬ 
ferred in many places to all others for orna¬ 
ment and shade. New Haven, in Connec¬ 
ticut, is so abundantly planted with it as 
sometimes to be called the City of Elms. 

Are there many species of Elm ? 

There are several, but chiefly the English 
elm, and the Slippery elm; the former was 
imported from England. 

How is the English distinguished from the American Elm ? 

It is not so large as the American Elm, nor 
do its branches bend downwards with the 
ample sweep of the former. 

How is the Slippery Elm described ? 

The slippery elm is not so large or droop¬ 
ing as the great elm, neither is it so common. 
Its inner bark abounds in Mucilage, a sort of 
vegetable jelly ; its wood makes good rails for 
fences. 


306 child’s guide to knowledge. 

Is the mucilage of slippery elm made use of? 

Yes; the bark dried in strips is sold in 
bunches in market and in drug shops. When 
boiled, the extract of it is applied to sore 
throats and other complaints. 

Are walnuts and other nut-trees indigenous in America ? 

They are in these States and in Persia. 
Our nut-trees are not only valuable for their 
fruit, but for many mechanical purposes. The 
fruit is covered with a spongy, odorous husk, 
without spines, which falls off when dry. 

Are Hickory-nuts wholesome ? 

Properly dried, they are sweet, wholesome, 
and nutritious ; but when old, the oil they 
contain becomes rancid, and they acquire an 
acrid taste. 

Can any use he made of nut oil ? 

Artists use walnut oil in the mixture of 
their fine colors. After the oil has been 
pressed out of a quantity of kernels, the mass 
left is called Nut-bread, and serves to fatten 
poultry. 

Does the Hickory-tree contain sugar ? 

Its sap is what is called Saccharine, that is, 
sweet to the taste, and containing sugar. 


Is the nut-tree valuable ? 

Yes, for many reasons; first for the beauty 



child’s guide to knowledge. 307 

of its form and the agreeable odor of its fo¬ 
liage, and especially for its wood, which is 
solid and may be easily cleft when young. 

What are some of the uses of nut-wood ? 

It is used for making hoops, in vast quan¬ 
tities, from the young trees. A plantation of 
young hickories is very profitable when sold 
for this purpose. 

Does this wood make charcoal ? 

Hut-wood makes the best charcoal, and the 
ashes, containing a large portion of Alkali 
(potash), make excellent Ley for the manufac¬ 
ture of soap. Ley is the liquid extract of 
wood-ashes. 

Does the mechanic use hickory wood ? 

Yes; it makes handles for chisels, gimlets, 
and augers: the carriage-maker employs it, 
and so does the farmer. 

What use has the farmer for it ? 

When he cannot get oak wood he makes of 
this wood the teeth of his rakes, bows for his 
yokes, and handles for his axes. 

Is the Locust a serviceable tree ? 

The Locust is a very picturesque tree, though 
defended with spines. In the flowering sea¬ 
son it is adorned with beautiful Eacemes of 
white flowers, tinged with a little yellow; 


308 child’s guide to knowledge. 

these are succeeded by a pod containing the 
seeds. 

What is a Raceme ? 

A Raceme is a hanging or pendulous dower 
or fruit-stalk, with flowers on each side, like a 
bunch of currants or barberries; both these 
are Racemes. 

Is Locust wood durable ? 

This tree is of rapid growth and subject to 
the depredations of a worm, which eating into 
it, often produces early decay. 

Is this wood valuable of itself? 

It is so durable that posts are often made 
of locust wood, and so are Tree-nails. 

What are Tree-nails ? 

They are nails of wood driven into such 
parts of a ship as require nails, because nails 
of iron would rust and injure the wood liable 
to be wetted by sea-water. The best tree¬ 
nails are made of locust-wood. 

What is the Birch ? 

The Birch family consists both of trees and 
shrubs, and is a native of the colder regions 
of both continents. Great quantities of birch 
wood are used as fuel. The Black Birch, the 
White Birch, and the Canoe Birch are the 
principal varieties. 


child’s guide to knowledge. 309 

What are the peculiar properties of Black Birch ? 

Its wood is somewhat used by mechanics, 
and its inner bark is scented and of an agree¬ 
able flavor, particularly that of the young 
twigs, which are often used to flavor confec¬ 
tioner’s Candy. 

“ The fragrant bark above him hung her tassels in the 
sky, 

And many a vernal blossom sprung and nodded careless 

by,” 

says Mr. Bryant’s poem, of a poor man lying 
dead in the woods. This “fragrant bark” 
was that of the black birch. 



A Canoe. 


Does the bark of some birches come off in large pieces ? 

The inner bark may be taken off in broad 
strips and sheets. This birch bark is that 
which the Canadian Indians embroider with 





310 child’s guide to knowledge. 

dyed Porcupine’s quills of various colors, mak¬ 
ing of it little cases and boxes for sale. 

Are Canoes made of birch bark ? 

Birch bark is that only which serves the In¬ 
dian to construct his Canoe of. Great plates of 
the bark are stitched together with the tena¬ 
cious fibres of the spruce root soaked in 
water; these are shaped into canoes. 

How is water excluded from these canoes ? 

When completely formed they are rubbed 
over with Resin from the Balm of Gilead tree. 
They are so light that when the Indians would 
pass from one stream to another they lift the 
little vessel upon men’s shoulders, who carry 
it whither they will. 

What is the space thus crossed called ? 

It is the Portage. A canoe designed to con¬ 
vey four passengers with their baggage usually 
weighs from forty to fifty pounds. Some of 
these canoes are large enough for fifteen per¬ 
sons, and are very convenient to travellers. 


Are Willows a numerous family ? 

They are, and are very useful. Willows 
are either shrubs or trees, varying from a few 
feet to eighty or ninety in height. 

What situation is most favorable to willows ? 



child’s guide to knowledge. 311 

Growing naturally in moist situations, by 
water-courses, they are often lofty trees ; on 
mountains and dry plains they are for the 
most part diminutive shrubs. 

Where do we most frequently see willows ? 

Planted in rows along wet ground. Our 
common willow has slender twigs of a yellow 
color, while its leaves of light green, blown 
by the wind, have a silvery appearance. 

Can willows be manufactured ? 

Their long pendent branches, called Sallows 
and Osiers, when stripped of the bark, are 
woven into baskets, infants’ wagons, cradles, 
and other articles. 

How are willows used in the Hebrides ? 

A traveller relates that in those islands he 
“has ridden with a Bridle made of willow 
twigs ; and lain all night in a vessel at anchor 
with a Cable of the same material.” 

What beautiful foreign willow is cultivated in the vicinity 
of New York? 

That which is called the Weeping Willow; 
this tree often grows to great magnitude, send¬ 
ing out thick branches with long sweeping 
twigs, in great beauty. It does not flourish 
in the colder climate of Hew England. 

Where was this willow brought from ? 

Tournefort, a great traveller and botanist, 


312 child’s guide to knowledge. 

brought it from the East to Europe, one hun¬ 
dred and fifty years ago (1702), and thence it 
was conveyed to the United States. 

Is not the weeping willow considered a melancholy tree ? 

In the Bible it is said of the Jews, captives 
in Babylon, they “ sat under the willows of 
Babylon and weptthey wept because they 
were exiled from their own country. This 
sorrow associates melancholy with willows. 

Does nothing else make the willow expressive of sadness ? 

The sad idea attached to it, as to the Cy¬ 
press, has made people plant it near the graves 
of the dead. 

Is the Lime a native tree ? 

This tree, often called the Linden, is a shade 
tree of compact form and thick foliage, and 
bearing very sweet-scented flowers of a pale 
green. These flowers are so attractive to bees 
that they will come long distances to rifle their 
sweets. 

Are there many species of this tree ? 

There are several. In England the limbs 
of one species, growing upon trees standing in 
rows opposite each other, are woven together 
at the ends, forming a sheltered walk. 

What is this called ? 

An alley or bower formed of intersecting 


child’s guide to knowledge. 


313 


branches is called a “ Pleached alley,” or a 
“Pleached bower.” 


What is the Maple ? 

The Maple is a numerous family of many 
species. It is frequently planted along roads 
in rows for the benefit of its shade, and its 
greenness so grateful to the eyes. The Sugar 
Maple affords sugar to the cultivator. 

Is maple wood valuable ? 

No native wood is more beautiful than the 
Rock Maple; it takes a fine polish and is used 
in different ways. 

What is the handsomest variety of this tree ? 

It is the Bird’s Eye Maple. It exhibits 
many waves and shades of color in the wood, 
in which a yellowish brown prevails. 

What use is made of Curled Maple, as this variety is some¬ 
times called ? 

It is used chiefly in the manufacture of 
house-furniture. Chairs, Bureaus, portable 
Desks, and frames of pictures are made of 
Curled Maple. 

Can this wood bo imitated? 

Maple, oak, and other woods are often imi¬ 
tated by painting over cheaper woods, after 
the colors and wavy surface of the more ex¬ 
pensive, and then varnishing them. 



314 child’s guide to knowledge. 

Do we cultivate ornamental trees and shrubs ? 

Many persons, who have ground about their 
houses, embellish it with hedges, borders, 
groves, or groups of trees, and often with 
single specimens. 

Can you mention some of these ? 

The Mountain Ash, the Lilac, the Snow¬ 
ball, and the Althea, besides the Hawthorn, 
which are all small trees. Of shrubs, there are 
all the family of the roses, the Syringa, and 
many more. 

What is the character of the Mountain Ash ? 

The Mountain Ash is a small tree, rarely 
exceeding twenty-five feet in height. It is of 
a slender form, sending out its branches almost 
horizontally. Its clusters of scarlet berries, 
remaining long upon the tree, make it very 
ornamental about a house. 

Is this tree an American production? 

The Mountain Ash is found in the Eastern 
States and in Europe. It is much cultivated 
in England, where it is sometimes called the 
Rowan, or Roan Tree. 

Are there any varieties of the Lilac ? 

There are the white, and the pale purple, 
growing upon small trees, or high bushes, and 
a smaller one, very pretty, called the Persian 
Lilac. 


CHILD’S GUIDE TO KNOWLEDGE. 315 

How is this flower described in verse ? 

“ Various in array—now white, 

Now sanguine, and her beauteous head now set 
With purple spikes pyramidal.” 

What is the meaning of “Sanguine?” 

TJiis word signifies bloody, or like blood in 
color; a “ sanguine hue,” means of a vivid, 
red color. The Lilac is not properly of san¬ 
guine hue, but of the purple, which is formed 
of blended Red and Blue. 

To what family does the Snow-ball belong ? 

The Snow-ball belongs to the Elder family. 
In the month of June, along the borders of 
pastures, the elder-bush exhibits its beautiful 
broad heads of clustered white flowers, and in 
autumn these white flowers are transformed 
into juicy berries of a garnet color, almost 
black. The Snow-ball produces no dark ber¬ 
ries. 

Is the Hawthorn a native tree ? 

The Hawthorn is a native, both of this 
country and of England. The Hawthorn is so 
called from its berries or Haws, and from its 
spines or thorns. 

Does the Thorn grow to great height ? 

No; the thorn is a low, handsome tree. 
The flowers of pure white, and the deep green 
foliage have great beauty; and the scarlet 


316 child’s guide to knowledge. 

Haws, which, remain on the trees until the 
birds gather them, give them an additional 
charm. 

Are Hawthorn hedges common ? 

They are not common, but are sometimes 
planted. Hawthorns in a Hedge are not per¬ 
mitted to grow to a height exceeding five 
feet, but are clipped on the top and sides, ex¬ 
hibiting a compact and regular surface. 

Do we adorn our walls and dwellings with vines ? 

Yes; with the fragrant Honeysuckle, the 
delicate Clematis, the profuse Trumpet-flower, 
the purple-flowered Wistaria, and the glossy¬ 
leaved Woodbine. 

What is a climber much cultivated in England ? 

The Ivy is a favorite climber in England; 
the “ ivy-mantled tower” is accounted a more 
beautiful object for the ivy which covers its 
stones. 

What are Trailing plants ? 

Those which run along the ground like the 
low Blackberry, a delicious wild fruit. 

Are there other Blackberries ? 

Yes; a large species, called the High-bush 
Blackberry. 

Are Blackberries medicinal ? 

When preserved in sugar, or made into 
jelly, they are used in some diseases. 


child’s guide to knowledge. 317 

To what tribe of Plants does the Blackberry belong? 

It belongs to the Brambles, tbe fruit of 
which consists of juicy seeds, in small clus¬ 
ters, on a receptacle, and having short spines, 
or briers, on the branches. 


What are the Eose Family ? 

They are an extensive family, not only in¬ 
cluding the Rose-flower, but a large number 
of fruit-bearing plants, as the Blackberry, 
Raspberry, and Strawberry, which are all 
wholesome and delicious fruits. 

Does the Strawberry grow on bushes ? 

bTo; but on a short trailing plant, which 
seems to love the ground, sending out runners 
that thrust out fibres into the soil; these take 
root and form new plants. 

How does a Strawberry plant resemble the rose-bush ? 

Their mode of growing is different, but 
their blossoms are formed alike. If one looks 
at a strawberry flower, a raspberry flower, a 
blackberry flower, and a small wild rose, he 
will see that the flowers, whether pink or 
white, are formed in the same manner. 

What do such flowers show ? 

Such flowers as the Rose always show that 
the plant which produces them is innocent, 

27 * 



318 child’s guide to knowledge. 

and not in the least unsafe to be touched, and 
that its fruit may safely be eaten. 

Are any plants poisonous ? 

The flowers, roots, and oil of some plants, 
are poisonous; but some of these, made into 
medicine, taken in small quantities, are given 
to sick persons. 

Are there many varieties of Roses ? 

There is a large number; we all know the 
Wild Rose, the Red Rose, the White Rose, 
the Yellow Rose, and the Moss Rose. These 
are but a few of this great and beautiful 
family. 

What is Sweet Brier ? 

It is the plant on which the wild rose 
grows; we often see it by the road-side, ad¬ 
miring the graceful curve of its branches, and 
enjoying the odor of its young shoots, and its 
modest, natural flowers. 

. What is the Michigan Rose ? 

This Rose, often called the Prairie Rose, is 
a native American, brought from the Western 
States, and now cultivated in the Middle and 
Eastern. 

Is the Michigan Rose much liked ? 

It is odorless, but much admired for the 
abundance of its flowers. This Rose is a 
Climber, and when sustained by a wall, will 


child's guide to knowledge. 


319 


spread itself over a large surface, mantling a 
house with great beauty. 

Is the Rose extensively known ? 

The Rose has been called “the queen of 
all the flowersits beauty and fragrance 
make it a general favorite. The Greeks culti¬ 
vated roses, and the Persians and other orien¬ 
tal people, and all Europeans admire and 
cherish it. 

Has the Rose any permanent value ? 

It has ; rose leaves, or petals, when dis¬ 
tilled, afford Rose-water, and a perfume called 
Attar of Roses. Rose leaves, dried and spread 
among clean linen, give it an agreeable odor. 

What is Sumach ? 

Sumachs are of several varieties. The most 
common, called the Mountain Sumach, is a 
beautiful shrub from three to five feet in 
height, being seeds in long clusters, of a long 
pointed form, and bright crimson color. 

Has the Sumach a splendid appearance in Autumn? 

It has; its seeds seem like diminutive balls 
of crimson velvet, and its leaves, before they 
fall off, take a similar hue. The Sumach 
grows on dry and rocky spots, and sometimes 
on quiet road-sides. 

Is any Sumach poisonous ? 

Yes; one sort, which is the Dog-wood of 


320 child’s guide to knowledge. 

swamps, called also Poison-wood, is a beau¬ 
tiful plant, but so poisonous that the effluvia 
of it often poisons persons who touch or go 
near it. 

How does this poison affect a person ? 

It gives him a fever, inflames his skin in 
great blotches, and makes him very uncom¬ 
fortable. 

What is a very favorite flower after the Kose ? 

The Lily. The Lily is* known in several 
varieties; one, the White Lily, the pride of 
the garden. This lily puts forth large white 
flowers ; several on one long stem. 

What is the Tiger Lily ? 

The Tiger Lily is an orange-colored flower; 
the inside of its six petals, being spotted with 
black, resembling a little the spots of the 
tiger’s coat. 

Does the Field Lily resemble this ? 

It does. This is supposed to be the Lily 
our Saviour mentioned in the twenty-eighth 
chapter of St. Matthew’s Gospel, when he said, 
“Consider the lilies of the field, how they 
grow and again, u Solomon, in all his glory, 
was not arrayed like one of these.” 

Are not a King’s robes more splendid than flowers of the 
field? 

USTo; the king’s robes were made by men, 


child’s guide to knowledge. 321 

but the flowers are the work of the great 
Creator. He contrived them with exquisite 
skill; he renews them every year; and they 
will last, in succession, to the end of time. 

How does a flower appear when viewed through a micro¬ 
scope ? 

It is most beautiful; every spot that can be 
seen with the naked eye, and many that 
cannot be so seen, display exquisite colors; 
and all the veins, containing the juices of the 
flower, are made quite plain. 

What is the Water Lily, or Nymphea? 

This is a large flower growing in brooks: 
it is rooted to the wet soil below the water ; 
this root sends out very long stalks, with broad 
leaves, and white flowers at the ends, some¬ 
what like a large white rose, often a little 
tinged with yellow, or pink, float on the sur¬ 
face of the water, and emitting a delicious 
odor. 

What is the largest known flower ? 

In Demarara grows the Victoria Kegina, 
an aquatic plant, bearing a flower fifteen 
inches in diameter; consequently its circum¬ 
ference measures one yard and a quarter. 
The green leaves are two yards across. 

Has the Victoria Eegina been brought to this country ? 

It has : one of these flowers, the property 


322 child’s guide to knowledge. 


of a gentleman of Philadelphia, was exhibited 
in the May of 1852, in New York, at a Flower 
Show. 


What are letters ? 

Letters, or written characters, are figures 
designed to express words, impressed on pa¬ 
per, stone, or any substance that will receive 
them. 

Are not words sounds ? 

They are; but certain letters, when prop¬ 
erly arranged, may be understood to mean a 
word, and many words so formed can be read 
and understood. 

How many letters have we in our language ? 

We have twenty-six; these are of two 
kinds, Yowels and Consonants. Seven of the 
letters are vowels, and nineteen are conso¬ 
nants ; these, collectively, are the Alphabet. 

What is writing ? 

It is the art of making letters and combin¬ 
ing them into words. 

What is reading ? 

Reading comprehends the ability to recog¬ 
nize words and their meaning when written, 
and enables the reader to repeat to others the 
contents of any writing, or of a printed book. 



child’s guide to knowledge. 323 

Have all languages the same characters ? 

No; the Chinese, Hebrew, Greek, and 
other languages, have letters in forms differ¬ 
ent from those of ours. 

Who invented English characters ? 

The letters of our alphabet are Roman, bor¬ 
rowed from the Latin language. * 

Where did our figures or numbers come from ? 

These are called Arabic numerals. They 
were carried by the Arabs to Spain, thence 
to other countries of Europe; and were lastly 
brought to this country. 

Are writing and reading very ancient ? 

Both must have been known fifteen centu¬ 
ries before the birth of Christ, because Moses 
engraved the Ten Commandments on tablets 
of stone, expecting they would be read. 

Where did Moses obtain his learning ? 

He spent his early life in Egypt, where he 
was instructed in all the learning of the 
country. 

Were the Egyptians in that age a learned people ? 

More than any people then existing. 

Had the Greeks as much learning as the Egyptians ? 

Not at that time; but afterwards both 
Egyptians and Phoenicians from western Asia, 
sent colonies to Greece, and these in time 


324 child’s guide to knowledge. 

taught what they knew, and learned much 
more. 

Is there any art more ancient than writing, by which men 
could communicate intelligence ? 

There is that of drawing Hieroglyphics, or 
pictures made to record facts. This kind of 
drawing might 'have been practised before the 
origin of letters. 

Have Hieroglyphics been in use in modern times ? 

In Mexico, little more than three hundred 
years ago, the people used Hieroglyphics to 
convey intelligence. 

What art is employed to supply, in some measure, the 
place of writing ? 

Printing, which fixes words upon paper 
more rapidly than writing. 

What implements are employed by the writer of Epistles, 
or writings addressed by one person to another ? 

The materials of the writer are Paper, Pens, 
Ink, Wafers, and Sealing-wax. Pens were 
anciently made of reeds, afterwards of quills, 
and now of metal. 

What is Ink ? 

It is the black fluid used to write with. It 
is made of galls, of copperas, a mineral sub¬ 
stance containing iron, some gum Arabic, 
and sufficient water to make it liquid. 

What are Wafers and Sealing-wax? 

Wafers are made of flour, isinglass, and a 


child’s guide to knowledge. 325 

small quantity of yeast. Sealing-wax is shel¬ 
lac and rosin melted together, and colored 
black, red, or green. 

What are Lead-pencils ? 

What we call lead-pencils contain no lead 
whatever, but a mineral substance called 
Plumbago; this is found in Cumberland in 
England, and in the State of Pennsylvania. 

Can you describe a Lead-pencil ? 

It is a cylinder formed of two slender pieces 
of cedar wood cemented together. In one of 
these pieces a groove is cut, into which a slip 
of plumbago is inserted, before the second 
piece is fastened on the former. 

How is the pencil used ? 

The wood at one end of the pencil is cut 
away, leaving the plumbago projecting from 
it, which is then scraped to a point, and serves 
to write or to draw with. India-rubber, or a 
piece of bread, will efface pencil marks. 

What is plumbago composed of? 

Nearly nine-tenths of it are carbon, about 
one-hundredth part is iron; sand and clay 
form the rest of this useful substance. 

Is Printing Ink like writing ink ? 

It is of the same black color, but is formed 
of boiled linseed oil and lampblack. This ink 
does not penetrate the paper, so as to prevent 
28 


326 child’s guide to knowledge. 

both sides of a sheet from taking an impres¬ 
sion. 

Does drawing resemble writing ? 

A written word has been said to be the 
picture of a thought, but a drawing is the 
picture of an object. 

What is a Picture ? 

A Picture is a painted drawing, but a draw¬ 
ing or an engraving is not properly a picture. 
A large engraving is a Print, and small ones, 
such as are seen in children’s books, are Cuts. 

What is a Portrait ? 

A Portrait is the painted likeness of a man, 
woman, or child. 


Is painting of many kinds ? 

There are several modes of painting; as Oil 
painting, painting in Crayons, in Sepia or In¬ 
dian Ink, painting in Water-colors, in Fresco, 
and in Enamel. 

What materials are used in painting ? 

Painters’ colors, pencils, chalk, brushes, and 
the articles painted upon; these last are plates 
of copper, prepared boards, canvas stretched 
on a wooden frame, and paper. 

Has the Artist no other instruments ? 

He mixes his colors with oil upon an oval 



child’s guide to knowledge. 327 

piece of smooth wood, or of porcelain, called 
a Pallet; this has a hole in it through which 
the painter puts his thumb, and holds the in¬ 
strument conveniently. 

Where does he place his canvas or board! 

He sets it on a tall frame, on the supporters 
of which are holes, so that the painting may 
be lifted higher or lowered by means of pins 
thrust into the holes. This is the Easel. 

Which is the more ancient, Painting or Sculpture ? 

These arts originated, perhaps, at the same 
time. Rude attempts at carving different 
forms are found among savages. Men are 
imitative beings, and love to represent what 
they have seen. 

Does the Bible mention Sculpture ? 

The second commandment is, “ Thou shalt 
not make to thyself any graven images, nor 
the likeness of any thing, nor bow down to it 
nor worship it.” 

What does this injunction show ? 

It shows that men made images and like¬ 
nesses fifteen centuries before Christ, and that 
they were idolaters. Aaron, the brother of 
Moses, made a golden calf in the wilderness 
for the Hebrews to worship. 

What could be the reason they desired a Calf to worship ? 

Because the Egyptians, among whom they 


328 child’s guide to knowledge. 

had lived, worshipped the bull Apis, which 
must have once been a calf. 

How has Painting been defined ? 

u Painting is that art of design which imi¬ 
tates objects by color on a uniform surface.” 

Why is painting called the Art of Design ? 

Design means an intention to do something; 
almost every action requires some thinking or 
planning. A picture is much thought of by 
the painter before he draws and paints it; he 
Designs it first and executes it afterwards. 

How are objects at different distances represented on the 
same surface ? 

By Perspective. If in a picture two trees 
of the same size are drawn, one very near the 
observer and the other at a distance, the near¬ 
er tree will be drawn of a larger size than the 
more distant. 

Why are these trees so drawn ? 

Because such is the law of Optics or Vision. 
If we look abroad, and think of what we see, 
we shall perceive that near objects appear to 
us larger than others of the same bulk more 
distant. 

Must the artist study Perspective ? 

He must know how much objects are di¬ 
minished to the eye by distance, or his draw¬ 
ing will be false, not according to nature; 


child’s guide to knowledge. 329 

therefore he must study Optics and Perspec¬ 
tive. 

Did the first artists know these sciences ? 

No; but as they designed pictures before 
they began them, and observed Light and the 
forms of many objects taken together, they 
learned by degrees the truths since written 
out in books of science. 

What is a Landscape ? 

It is a picture of some view in the country, 
exhibiting land and water, trees, houses, cat¬ 
tle, or any objects usually seen upon land. 
Scope means the space the eye can see over. 

What are Marine views ? 

Marine views are prospects of the Ocean, 
sometimes in repose and sometimes agitated 
by storms, often containing ships sailing, or 
driven furiously by the winds and waves. 


What is an Historical Picture ? 

Every picture consisting of many figures of 
men or animals is a Composition; if it repre¬ 
sents any great action, good or bad, it is an 
Historical Picture. 

Had the Greeks great painters ? 

The historians of Greece relate that for five 
centuries before Christ they had many; their 
28* 



330 child’s guide to knowledge. 

pictures represented the actions of great men, 
and the fabulous history of their gods and 
goddesses. 

Are any of these pictures in existence ? 

They are not; but what they were is men¬ 
tioned in History. 

Did painting originate with the Romans ? 

The Romans do not appear to have been 
originators of painting. The Greeks from 
Corinth brought painting on vases into Etru¬ 
ria, and the Romans took paintings from the 
Greeks of southern Italy, from Sicily, and 
Corinth. 

When did the Romans obtain possession of Greece itself? 

Mummius, a Roman general, took Corinth 
before Christ 147 years. This completed the 
conquest of Greece. Corinth contained many 
splendid works of art, which fell into the 
hands of the Romans*, many of these were 
conveyed to Rome. 

Did the Romans understand the value of pictures ? 

At first they did not. When the Roman 
soldiers seized and carried off from the houses 
of Corinth fine pictures, the general told them 
if they injured or destroyed these beautiful 
works of art they must pay for them. 

Would it have been possible to pay for them? 

Ho. A fine work of art may be sold by 


child’s guide to knowledge. 331 

one owner to another, but cannot be replaced 
if it be destroyed. The loss cannot be paid 
for. 

Did the Romans ever acquire the love of art ? 

Public edifices had been embellished by 
some pictures executed in Rome previously to 
the taking of Corinth, but art was little 
esteemed among the Romans. 

Was this taste never acquired by them? 

Rich people acquired it, and adorned their 
great houses with pictures, therefore there 
must have been painters to furnish them. In 
the time of the Emperor Augustus landscapes, 
garden scenes, and painted walls were orna¬ 
ments of public baths and private dwellings. 

What was the age of Augustus ? 

Our Saviour was born in the twenty-seventh 
year of the reign of Augustus. Judea, the 
native country of our Lord, was a portion of 
the empire, and his parents paid taxes to the 
emperor. 

Are there any remains of Roman art ? 

Pompeii, a city of Italy, was buried beneath 
the lava of Vesuvius for seventeen centuries; 
the walls of its houses, and those of the baths 
of Hero at Rome exhibit some ancient paint¬ 
ings, but these are not of much merit. 

What is Mosaic ? 


332 child’s guide to knowledge. 

Mosaic can only be compared to wliat we 
call Patchwork, which is made of small pieces 
of silk or calico arranged in symmetrical 
forms. 

Of what is Mosaic made ? 

Mosaic is a sort of picture made of small 
pieces of fine stone of different colors, often 
not so large as the head of a pin, and cemented 
so as to represent men, animals, and other 
objects. 

Do any ancient Mosaics exist ? 

Yes, many; one especially fine, represent¬ 
ing a battle, has been taken from Pompeii. 
Mosaics made into brooches and small medal¬ 
lions for necklaces, are still manufactured in 
Italy, and are worn by ladies. 

Can poor people possess good pictures ? 

It takes much time, labor, and skill to pro¬ 
duce a good picture, therefore the rich only 
can purchase them; but they may be engraved 
on paper at small cost, so that all persons may 
obtain some notion of the best pictures. 


What is Illuminating? 

Illuminated books are manuscripts bound in 
the form of a volume, and composed of parch¬ 
ment, or of vellum which resembles parch 



child’s guide to knowledge. 333 

ment. These books are adorned on the title- 
page, and on the margin of the leaves, with 
paintings in very bright colors. 

What sort of pictures are these ? 

Illuminated books are generally on religious 
subjects. The painted figures, which are often 
partially gilt, are those of our Saviour, of the 
Virgin Mary, the Apostles, and other Holy 
men. Sometimes figures of birds and flowers 
may be seen in them. 

Was the art of painting continued in Italy from the time 
of Augustus? 

ISTo ; barbarians from Germany chiefly took 
possession of Italy in the fifth century. They 
and their descendants either neglected or de¬ 
stroyed whatever was beautiful in the country. 

Did not the fine arts revive in Italy ? 

Yes; early in the thirteenth century, the 
Italians began to paint with some success, 
though it does not appear that they imitated 
the forms sculptured on the reliefs and vases 
which had not been destroyed. 

Did these artists paint in oil ? 

John Van Eyk, about 1380, was the first 
who painted in oil. Invention improved from 
this time ; the painters and sculptors employed 
themselves on religious subjects, and their 
works were often placed in Basilicas, or 
churches. 


334 child’s guide to knowledge. 

What was the use of these carvings and paintings ? 

The greater number of people in those days 
could not read letters, but they readily under¬ 
stood pictures. All persons, however humble 
they might be, could enter the church and 
read the Scripture history in the pictures. 

What were the subjects of these pictures ? 

They were often incidents in the life of 
Christ—such as his infancy in Bethlehem, his 
Baptism by John, his Miracles and his Cruci¬ 
fixion, besides representations of his apostles, 
his mother, and his female friends. 

Were those pictures very instructive ? 

This is called Pictorial instruction, and is 
very useful, giving just ideas of persons and 
actions that could not else be so well under¬ 
stood. We now have what are called Illus¬ 
trated books, containing Wood-cuts of differ¬ 
ent objects, designed to instruct the reader. 

Who in Italy brought the art of painting to great perfec¬ 
tion? 

Baphael, Michael Angelo, Leonardo da Yin- 
ci, and Titian. These and some other eminent 
men are called the Old Masters; and their 
paintings, Works of the Old Masters. 

Were these great men contemporaries ? 

They were. Leonardo da Yinci died in 
1519, the year before Kaphael. Da Yinci 


child’s guide to knowledge. 335 

painted the well-known Last Supper, common 
in this country in an excellent print. Raphael 
has left very beautiful things in Rome, and 
some of his pictures are in England and other 
countries. 

Who excelled all the Italian painters ? 

Michael Angelo, who died 1563, at the age 
of eighty-nine. He was at once poet, painter, 
sculptor, and architect. He painted the chapel 
of the Yatican called the Sistine, and its walls 
and ceilings are still the monuments of his 
genius. 

Did Raphael live to the great age of Michael Angelo ? 

Ho; that admirable painter died at the age 
of thirty-seven (1520). He was a native of 
Urbino in Umbria, a duchy of Italy, and is 
often called Raphael d’Urbino, from his birth¬ 
place. His Madonnas are reckoned to be the 
most beautiful ever painted. 

What is a Madonna ? 

The word Madonna signifies “ my lady.” 
The old masters and the Italians being Catho¬ 
lics generally, had great veneration for the 
mother of Christ—thence they call the Virgin 
Mary the “ Madonna.” 

Are there eminent painters out of Italy ? 

Painters are divided into what are called 
Schools—as the Roman School, the Venetian 


336 child’s guide to knowledge. 

School, the Flemish School, &c. Titian be¬ 
longed to Venice, therefore his works belong 
to the Venetian School. 

Was Titian a great painter ? 

He was, and was distinguished by the great 
men of his time. Many of his pictures still 
exist. He died 1576, at the great age of 
ninety-six years. There were other eminent 
painters of the Venetian school. Tintoretto, 
who died 1594, was a famous master of this 
school. 


Did the art of painting continue to be religious ? 

When the Italians began to study the An¬ 
tique—that is, the Greek sculpture which the 
barbarians had not destroyed—the artists be¬ 
gan to imitate it. These Greek remains were 
figures, almost naked, of heathen gods and 
goddesses. 

What are these different styles of art called ? 

The former religious style is called Chris¬ 
tian art, and that which resembles the Greek 
models is Classic Art. 

Did the Italians only practise painting ? 

Ho; the Germans also created schools of 
painting. The school of Cologne is the most 
distinguished. Nuremberg was the birthplace 



child’s guide to knowledge. 337 

of Albert Durer, a painter who almost equalled 
the Italian masters. Durer died 1528. 

Who are the most famons modern artists of Germany ? 

Dannaker, a sculptor, and Cornelius and 
Overbeck, living painters. 

Who was Holbein ? 

Hans Holbein, of Augsburg, was living in 
1500, in Germany, and was an eminent artist. 
Hans Holbein the younger, also a painter, 
came from Switzerland to England, where he 
died, 1554. 

Did Holland and Belgium also produce painters ? 

Yes; these formed the Dutch and Flemish 
schools. Peter Paul Rubens, who died at 
Antwerp, 1640, has left in that city a very 
famous picture, called the Descent from the 
Cross. 

Who was a famous pupil of Kubens? 

Antony Vandyke, who executed many 
beautiful portraits during his residence in 
England, which yet remain there. 

Who was the greatest master of the Dutch school? 

Paul Rembrandt. His portraits are among 
the finest in the world. Rembrandt died 
1674. He had many pupils, the most eminent 
of whom was Gerard Dow. 

Who was Teniers ? 

David Teniers was a Dutch painter, who 
29 


338 child’s guide to knowledge. 

lived to 1690. His style was neither Sacred 
nor Classical, but Humorous. His pictures 
are very amusing, representing Dutch people 
at their work, or in their diversions. 

Who were famous painters of landscape ? 

Annibal Caracci and Dominichino (Italians), 
and Salvator Rosa, painted admirable views 
of nature. Claude Gelee, born at Lorraine, 
in France, and therefore called Claude Lor¬ 
raine, has left many very beautiful landscapes. 

Who besides Claude were famous in landscape painting ? 

Jacob Rysdael, Nicholas Poussin, Salvator 
Rosa (an Italian), Albert Cuyp, and Philip 
Wouvermans, who executed all scenes in which 
horses occur with great effect: all of the 
seventeenth century. 

Is there a Spanish School ? 

There is one of numerous artists of the six¬ 
teenth century, whose works may still be seen 
in churches of different cities in Spain. 

Who were eminent Spanish artists ? 

The most eminent Spanish artists were 
Murillo and Yelasquez. Some of Murillo’s 
works are in England, in public and private 
collections, and are greatly admired. 

When did these artists live ? 

They both lived in the seventeenth century. 
Murillo sometimes painted angels and some- 


child’s guide to knowledge. 339 

times beggar boys, besides landscapes and 
flowers ; but whatever he did, he did well. 

Is there a French School of art ? 

There is a French school, though some emi¬ 
nent French artists have spent the best part of 
their lives in Italy. Of these was Nicholas 
Poussin, who died in Pome 1665. 

What is a famous picture of Poussin’s? 

The Deluge ; a picture of that great rain or 
Flood which destroyed all men then living, 
except Noah and his family. This picture is 
in the Gallery of the Louvre. 

What is the Louvre ? 

It is a palace in Paris, in which is a great 
collection of paintings and sculpture. One 
may walk more than a mile through apart¬ 
ments, the walls of which are covered with 
pictures. 

Can all persons visit the Louvre ? 

Except on one day of the week, all persons, 
high or humble, of decent deportment, may 
visit the Louvre without paying any fee; and 
those who are so inclined are allowed to copy 
any picture. 

Who are the greatest French artists ? 

La Sueur, Le Brun, "Watteau, and David, of 
the present century. Besides these are Horace 
Yernet and Delacroix, now living; and Leo- 


340 child’s guide to knowledge. 

pold Robert, a young painter of great genius, 
who died in Italy, and left beautiful pictures 
of Italian rural life. 

Are the arts now cultivated in Germany ? 

In Dusseldorf is a famous school for in¬ 
struction of painters; and in Dresden and 
Berlin are valuable collections. 

What living monarch is a great patron of the fine arts ? 

* The King of Bavaria. He has made his 
capital (Munich) most magnificent, by the em¬ 
bellishments of architecture, painting, and 
sculpture. 

Is there an English school of art? 

The English have never equalled the most 
eminent painters of the continent. Hogarth, 
of the last century, was a very original genius- 
He is a Moral painter of great skill, exhibit¬ 
ing in his pictures, which are in Series, like 
the chapters of a book, the end of vice and 
folly. Hogarth died 1765. 

Can you mention other English artists? 

Yes; Wilson, famous for landscapes; Gains¬ 
borough, for rural scenes; Sir Joshua Rey¬ 
nolds, for portraiture; Sir David Wilkie, a 
Scotch artist, for humor ; and Benjamin West, 
an American, settled in London, for historical 
pictures. Some of these are of the last, and 
others of the present century. 


child’s guide to knowledge. 341 


Who are distinguished living artists in England ? 

Mulready, McLise; Leslie, an American; 
Stanfield, a landscape painter; and Sir Edwin 
Landseer, who excels all other painters in his 
admirable pictures of animals. 

Have some eminent English painters died within a few 
years ? 

Constable, Callcott, Sir William Allan, in 
Scotland, and the most celebrated of all, 
Turner, lately deceased, whose pictures now 
bear an immense price. 

Do the Americans cultivate painting ? 

We have many native artists, and some 
good ones. Thomas Cole was a noble his¬ 
torical painter. Robert Walter Weir, of West 
Point, is an artist of much grace and skill; 
and Durand, of New York, is an excellent 
painter of American scenery. Washington 
Allston excelled all these. 


What is painting in Fresco ? 

Fresco is an Italian word, signifying fresh. 
Fresco painting is the painting of figures on 
plaster or on a wall, when the wall is damp or 
wet. 

Did the great masters paint in fresco ? 

They did. Many of the finest works of 
Michael Angelo and of Raphael are painted in 
29* 



342 child’s guide to knowledge. 

fresco, and are in Rome in chapels and pal¬ 
aces. 

What is Enamel painting ? 

Enamel is a fine preparation of glass. This 
substance painted on one side, by its trans¬ 
parency admits the figures to the other side. 
Enamel paintings are usually small, like 
ladies’ larger brooches. This painting is burnt 
into the glass. 

What are water-colors ? 

"Water-colors are formed by certain paint- 
stuffs—red, yellow, blue, or any color—mixed 
with water for use, and painted on prepared 
paper. 

Can this species of painting be made very beautiful ? 

It can. Exquisite flowers can be so painted, 
and other designs. The English, at the pre¬ 
sent time, excel in water-color painting. 

What are Crayons ? 

Crayons are a kind of earth—black, white, 
and red, and other chalky earths—made into 
sticks a few inches in length. These are 
rubbed dry on paper in figures designed by 
the artist. 

Are pictures in crayons pretty ? 

They may be made so by the skill of the 
painter, but the colors easily rub off, if not 
put under glass. This sort of painting is also 
called Pastel. 


child’s guide to knowledge. 343 

What is a Miniature ? 

It is the representation of an object dimin¬ 
ished—that is, made mnch smaller than the 
natural size, as the head and upper part of 
a man’s person drawn in the space of a few 
inches, on ivory or paper. 


What is Dyeing ? 

It is the immersion of any substance used 
as cloth, or any texture, woollen, cotton, or 
silk, in some liquid which will communicate 
a new color to the cloth, and to raw silk, to 
wool, or to cotton yarn. 

What colors are so communicated ? 

All the colors which we see in our gar¬ 
ments, our curtains, and our carpets. Paint¬ 
ing is laid upon surfaces as upon the painted 
floor-cloth in our houses. Dyeing penetrates 
into every thread and particle of the dyed 
substance. 

Did the ancients practise dyeing ? 

They did, as appears in the Old Testament. 
The Hebrews were commanded to bring of 
fine linen “ blue, and purple, and scarlet,” 
and also “Rams’ skins dyed red,” for the 
Tabernacle. 

What was the Tabernacle ? 

It was a tent which could be set up and 

29* 



344 child’s guide to knowledge. 

taken down, within which certain furniture 
and instruments used in the Hebrew worship 
were kept. The priests only entered the 
Tabernacle while the Congregation worshipped 
on the outside. 

Of what substance was the tabernacle made ? 

The Tabernacle was formed of curtains 
made of dyed linen, covered over with other 
curtains of woven goats’ hair. All these were 
spread over supporters which might be moved 
from place to place. 

Did other people in that age practise dyeing ? 

Probably they did. One nation, the Phoe¬ 
nicians, whose capital was Tyre on the Medi¬ 
terranean, were famous for a dye of great 
beauty, called the Tyrian Purple. 

How was the Tyrian purple procured ? 

It was a juice contained in a little bag or 
sac of a shell-fish. This juice also exuded 
from the shells of the animal, but the quan¬ 
tity so obtained was small, which made the 
dye very dear. 

What was the effect of this high price ? 

The cost of it permitted only rich people to 
wear it. The Purple often mentioned in 
Poman history was only worn as a border to 
the white robes of great men, put on in stripes 
like velvet ribbons in these days. 


child’s guide to knowledge. 345 

What is Purple ? 

It is what is called a compound color. It is 
a mixture of red and blue. Simple colors can¬ 
not be divided into separate colors. The sim¬ 
ple colors are Red, Yellow, and Blue. Red 
and yellow make Orange; red and blue, Pur¬ 
ple ; and blue and yellow, Green. 

Was the Tyrian a true Purple ? 

No; it was a garnet, or deep rose-color, like 
fresh blood. 

What is scarlet ? 

Scarlet is red, with a slight addition of yel¬ 
low. The modern scarlet dye is made of a 
dried insect called Cochineal. These insects 
are reduced to powder, mixed with a prepara¬ 
tion of tin, and put into water, in order to 
make this dye. 

Where does the Cochineal insect come from ? 

It is found in Mexico. It feeds on the thick 
leaves of the prickly pear. When in a torpid 
or sleeping state, the insects are carefully re¬ 
moved, dried, and sent to different countries. 

Does not this care in collecting make Cochineal very ex¬ 
pensive ? 

Yes; because all labor must be paid for, 
and the price of the labor is added to that of 
the article wrought upon. 

Were there no scarlet dyes before America was discovered ? 


346 child’s guide to knowledge. 

Yes; because other substances were em¬ 
ployed to make the color. 

What was one of those substances ? 

Madder is a trailing plant much cultivated 
in England and Holland, on account of its 
roots, which are used by dyers and calico- 
printers. 

Does madder anywhere grow wild ? 

Yes; in South America, in the neighbor¬ 
hood of Smyrna, and in the island of Cyprus. 
Madder is a harmless plant, and when cows 
eat of it, it gives a yellow tinge to their butter. 

Is the madder root red ? 

When ground to powder, it is yellow; but 
by exposure to air, it becomes red. Besides, 
red, madder furnishes a purple, a yellow, an 
orange, and a brown color to the dyer. 

What is Turmeric ? 

It is the root of an East Indian plant, used 
in Europe and in India for curry powders, 
which are a condiment cooked with meats. 

Is turmeric used in dyeing ? 

It gives a fine vivid yellow to silk and cot¬ 
ton ; and added to Cochineal, it improves scar¬ 
let dye. The leaves of the Saffron flower also 
afford a yellow color. 

What affords a valuable blue dye? 

Indigo. This color is obtained from several 


child’s guide to knowledge. 347 

plants; but the leaves of indigo supply the 
best. Indigo is used in dyeing in Europe, 
Asia, and the United States. 

Does indigo grow in all those countries ? 

Indigo is cultivated in Southern Asia and , 
in the Southern States, whence it is exported 
to Europe. A small infusion of indigo in 
water is used in washing white clothes, in 
order to take out the yellow tinge they often 
contract. 

What is Logwood ? 

It is a dark red wood used in dyeing. It is 
brought in sticks about two feet in length from 
Honduras and some of the West India islands. 

What is Woad ? 

It is the leaves of a plant growing wild in 
England. These leaves are ground and made 
into balls. These will then make a blue dye. 

Who stained their bodies with Woad ? 

When people from the continent of Europe 
first visited the southern part of Britain, now 
called England, they found the native Britons 
stained with woad, by way of ornament. 

What practice does that resemble ? 

What is called Tattooing, or marking the 
person in indelible figures, as is done by the 
South Sea Islanders. The blue color of woad 
will wash off. 


348 child’s guide to knowledge. 

What is Gamboge ? 

The solidified juice of a tree growing in 
Cambodia, in the East Indies. It is some¬ 
times used in medicine, but is more valuable 
in painting, being of a beautiful yellow color. 


What is Alum ? 

Alum is a certain salt sometimes found in 
the earth, but more ofteii obtained from other 
substances—from clay and slate-stone. 

Is alum a simple substance ? 

Ho; it is composed of sulphur, alumina, 
potash, and water, and can be made artifi¬ 
cially. Alum is white, resembling at sight 
fragments of ground glass, being semi-trans¬ 
parent, or not quite transparent. 

What quality is peculiar to Alum ? 

Astringency. If you put a lump of alum 
into your mouth, it draws up the pores, and 
makes the skin feel hard and rough for a short 
time. This is Astringency—a property of tan- 
bark and other substances. 

Will alum dissolve in water ? 

Alum dissolves in its own weight of boiling 
water, but requires eighteen times as much 
cold water. 


For what is alum used ? 



child’s guide to knowledge. 349 

For many purposes. It is employed in 
dyeing to fix colors, and aids in dissolving the 
tin which is used in scarlet dyes. It is rubbed 
upon leather to make it closer and stronger. 

Is it not used for other purposes ? 

Yes; for hardening tallow candles, and 
sometimes it is put into bread by bakers, to 
make dark flour look white. 

What is Gum Arabic? 

Gum exudes in drops from many trees, and 
soon hardens in air. The bark of cherry, 
apple, and plum trees affords gums, which is 
generally almost transparent, like Amber. 

Has gum any medicinal uses ? 

Gum Arabic has, being used when dissolved 
with other substances for coughs and colds. 
This gum, when refined, is white, and, when 
dissolved in water, serves for paste. 

What is Camphor ? 

It is obtained from the roots and wood of a 
tree found in China, in Southern Asia, and in 
the neighboring islands. The roots and wood 
are boiled, and the camphor condenses in 
the form we have it. Camphor has a strong 
odor, said to be repellent to insects. 

What are the qualities of Camphor wood ? 

It is so little destructible, that the Chinese 

30 


350 child’s guide to knowledge. 


often use it for coffins. Camphor is given in 
tincture for a medicine. 



A Cannon. 


What is Saltpetre ? 

Saltpetre, or Nitre, is a salt which looks like 
alum, but has different properties. It is found 
pure in some countries, but more often in com¬ 
bination with other substances. 

What are some of the properties of Saltpetre? 

It has a cool taste, and dissolves in its own 
weight of boiling water. It preserves meat, 
and is used in packing it for future use. Nitre 
is also an ingredient of Gunpowder. 

What is Gunpowder ? 

Gunpowder is a composition of Nitre, char¬ 
coal, and Sulphur. It is used in fire-arms, in 
the blasting of rocks, and in the composition 
of fireworks. 


























child’s guide to knowledge. 351 

By what quality is gunpowder serviceable ? 

By what is called its Explosive force. Gun¬ 
powder touched with fire disperses itself vio¬ 
lently, carrying every thing before it, often to 
great distances. 

What are Fire-arms ? 

Cannon, Guns of different form, and Pis¬ 
tols. A Cannon is a tube, sometimes as large 
as a man’s body, into which a ball is placed, 
with some gunpowder: a lighted match at 
the end of a rod is applied to what is called 
the touch-hole. This fires the powder, and 
drives out the ball. 

What is a Bomb Shell ? 

An iron ball filled with powder, which, 
forced into the air, breaks wherever it falls, 
committing great destruction, firing houses 
and throwing down walls. 

What are Guns and Pistols? 

They are smaller fire-arms—a gun having 
a steel tube, called the barrel, fixed to a 
wooden stock about five feet long. This in¬ 
strument has a spring, which, being pulled, 
strikes a hammer upon flint, produces sparks 
that fire the powder, and drive the shot or 
bullets with which it is loaded whither the gun 
points. 

Does a pistol resemble a gun ? 

It is but a few inches in length, but also 


352 child’s guide to knowledge. 

drives out powder and shot. All these are 
called Fire-arms, because they need fire to put 
them in action. 

What is Blasting rocks ? 

It is breaking large masses of stone apart 
by means of Gunpowder. Holes are bored 
in the rock, into which the powder is put. 
The powder is then lighted, and forces the 
rock into fragments. 

Should gunpowder be used with great care ? 

It should. Gunpowder can only be kept 
for common sale in very small quantities, in 
stores. It is deposited at a distance from 
houses, in a building called a powder Maga¬ 
zine. 

What is the use of gunpowder ? 

It helps men to kill each other, and, what 
is more innocent, to kill wild animals. A 
man can shoot a wolf, or a mad dog that as¬ 
sails him. 

Was gunpowder always used ? 

It is supposed that some Germans gave it 
to the Yenetians, and showed them the use of 
cannon and leaden balls, in 1366. The ex¬ 
plosive power of gunpowder was discovered 
by Swartz, a German monk. 

Had the Asiatics any knowledge of gunpowder? 

It is affirmed that both the Chinese and 


child’s guide to knowledge. 353 * 

Hindoos made use of it before Europeans 
were acquainted with it. 


What is Isinglass ? 

It is a glue made from the sounds and air- 
bladders of fish. The sturgeon found in the 
great river Volga in Eussia affords this sub¬ 
stance. 

What is Isinglass used for ? 

It is used in fixing and clearing liquors, and 
in cookery it makes jellies. The sturgeon’s 
eggs, or roe, make a substance called Caviar, 
which is eaten and much liked by some 
persons. 

What are Edible Bird’s-nests ? 

They are nests of a bird found in the East 
Indies, made entirely of a substance which, 
when cooked, is a jelly; and, being seasoned, 
is used as food and much relished. 

What is Ether ? 

When equal quantities of sulphuric acid 
and alcohol are heated in a Eetort, a vapor 
rises from the two which' may be condensed 
into a limpid, colorless fluid ; this is Ether. 

What are the properties of Ether ? 

Ether has a hot, pungent taste, and a fra¬ 
grant odor. It is given to relieve distressed 
30 * 



354 child’s guide to knowledge. 

respiration: like chloroform, it produces in¬ 
sensibility to pain. 

What is Chloroform ? 

Chloroform is a dense, limpid fluid, half as 
heavy as water, and very volatile. It is dis¬ 
tilled from alcohol and chloride of lime. Its 
vapor, when breathed, produces insensibility, 
so that severe surgical operations are expe¬ 
rienced without pain. 

What arc Leeches ? 

Leeches belong to a family of worms called 
the Annilose, because they have rings round 
the body. Leeches have red blood, and relish 
blood for their food. 

Is the leech dangerous ? 

Ho; he lives in the water, and will suck 
the blood of cattle who are driven into the 
pond they inhabit. When gorged, or filled 
with blood, they will drop off the vein they 
have adhered to. 

Are Leeches useful to mankind ? 

In many diseases they are so. It is thought 
proper sometimes to take blood from a sick 
person, and the easiest way to do it is to apply 
leeches to the part in pain. 

How does the leech take blood ? 

He has in his mouth sixty little teeth; with 
these he bites a vein under the skin and draws 


child’s guide to knowledge. 355 

out the blood. He is about two inches long. 
The wound he makes will generally close of 
itself. 

Where are leeches found ? 

They were once numerous in France and in 
England, but have become scarce. Pussia 
and Turkey, Sweden, Poland, and Hungary, 
export leeches to France and England. 

Are leeches much in demand ? 

Four dealers in London import seven mil¬ 
lions every year, and three millions are used 
annually in Paris. In the United States 
leeches are imported from Europe. 

What are Cantharides ? 

Cantharides, also called Spanish flies, are 
an insect which, when taken and dried, are 
used for blistering plasters—some diseases re¬ 
quiring that a blister be raised on the surface 
of the skin. 

Where are these flies found ? 

In Spain, Sicily, Italy, and the South of 
France. They are found upon trees in a torpid 
state, are shaken upon cloths laid on the 
ground, and thus taken. 

Do these insects never recover from their torpid state ? 

To prevent Peanimation they are tied in 
bags, and killed by being held over the steam 
of hot vinegar; they are then dried in the sun. 


356 child’s guide to knowledge. 

What is Reanimation ? 

Animation is the state of being alive. 
When a man or animal appears to be dead, 
if he is restored to activity, he is Reanimated, 
or Resuscitated. Persons taken out of the 
water, apparently dead, are often Reanimated. 

What is Castor Oil ? 

It is an oil used as medicine; it is Expressed 
or squeezed out of a plant called Agnus 
Castus. This plant grows abundantly in Nu¬ 
bia, and the natives rub their skin with it to 
make it smooth. 

Does the Castor plant grow in the United States ? 

It may often be seen in our gardens, bear¬ 
ing seeds of the size of a small pea. The 
kernels of these seeds contain the oil. Plan¬ 
tations of Castor are cultivated near New 
York, and the oil they afford, called Harlaem 
Oil, is remarkably white and pure. 


What is Mastic ? 

It is a gum brought from Scio, an island 
of the Archipelago, and from the Levant; the 
Turkish women chew it; they also burn it 
with other fine gums as a perfume. 

What is Sandal Wood ? 

It is an aromatic wood found on the Malabar 



child’s guide to knowledge. 357 

coast, and burnt for #s perfume when dried 
and cut into short thin sticks. 

Is Sandal Wood used in heathen worship ? 

The Chinese burn it on little altars, before 
their doors and in their gardens, as an act of 
reverence to their deities. 

Where do the Chinese obtain Sandal Wood ? 

Much of it is brought from the Sandwich 
Islands. Some years ago the king of the 
islands made his subjects work so hard to 
obtain this wood, that great numbers of them 
died from excessive toil. 

What use did the King make of Sandal Wood ? 

He sold it to the Chinese, who sent ships to 
the islands for it. The king, after compelling 
his poor subjects to collect and prepare it 
for exportation, took the price of the wood 
himself. 

What is Myrrh ? 

It is the gum of a tree which grows in 
Arabia and Abyssinia; it is both-a perfume 
and medicine. 

Is Myrrh mentioned in the New Testament ? # 

Yes; Vhen the Magi, certain wise men 
from the East, perhaps from northern Arabia, 
visited the infant Jesus, they brought an offer¬ 
ing, a present, of “ gold, myrrh, and frank¬ 
incense.” 


358 child’s guide to knowledge. 

What is Frankincense ? 

It is a gum which, being set fire to, burns 
with an agreeable odor. The tree which pro¬ 
duces frankincense grows in Syria and Arabia. 

What is Varnish ? 

Garnish is a compound of gum, alcohol, 
and other ingredients; it is laid upon wood, 
upon house furniture, and also on pictures, to 
give them a gloss and bring out the colors. 

Is Varnish to be used carefully? 

Yes ; it is very inflammable, and when ex¬ 
posed to fire, unless carefully watched, may 
blaze unexpectedly and do much harm. 

What is Japanning? 

It is a hard and durable varnish, often 
painted in flowers and other figures. It is 
seen on tea-trays and other articles of Hard¬ 
ware. 

Why is this Varnish called Japan ? 

Because it was first known in Europe upon 
articles imported from Japan, where it is 
much used. 

What is Hardware ? 

Hardware consists of articles in domestic 
use, made of iron, brass, or copper; as iron 
pots, coal-scuttles, and cutlery, brass candle¬ 
sticks, copper sauce-pans, and tin measures 
and pans. ¥e call silver vessels Plate. 


child’s guide to knowledge. 359 

What is Aquafortis ? 

Aquafortis is a powerful fluid distilled from 
a mixture of iron and clay; all metals, except 
gold and platina, can be dissolved in it; it is 
useful to dyers. 

Of what use is it in dyeing ? 

It fixes the coloring matter in the cloth to 
be dyed, or printed in figures. It is then said 
to act as a Mordant. 

What is Copperas ? 

It is a mineral substance found sometimes 
in a natural state, and sometimes it is manu¬ 
factured. Copperas, often called Green Yit- 
riol, is used in dyeing dark colors. 

Is Copperas a simple substance ? 

Ho; it is composed of sulphuric acid and 
iron, and is manufactured by decomposing 
Pyrites, an ore of iron, and adding sulphuric 
acid. This artificial copperas is largely manu¬ 
factured in the State of Yermont. 

What is Oxalic Acid ? 

Oxalic Acid is obtained from certain sour 
vegetables, as sorrel and the rhubarb plant. 
When crystallized, it is intensely sour and 
poisonous. Diluted with water, this acid re¬ 
moves ink and iron stains from linen. 

What is Tartaric Acid? 

This acid abounds in grapes and tamarinds, 


360 child’s guide to knowledge. 

and exists in several vegetables, and when 
collected forms Cream of Tartar. 

Does new wine afford this substance ? 

It does: when wine has stood in a vat, or 
cask, it deposits a hard crust, or tartar, on the 
sides of the vessel; this is known as Cream 
of Tartar. 

What is the use of it ? 

Among other uses it is put into soda-water 
and soda powders. With hot water poured 
upon it, it makes an agreeable beverage. 

Why does ink make so fixed a stain ? 

Because it contains iron, which adheres in 
the form of color, and tends to Disintegrate 
or rot the material spotted with it, as may be 
seen in what is called iron-rust in linen. 

What is Lac ? 

Lac is a resinous substance flowing from 
several plants in the East Indies. It flows 
out through punctures made by an insect, and 
this juice, mixed with a fluid derived from 
the insects, encrusts the twigs of the wood. 

In what form is Lac ? 

The sticks covered with it, when broken off, 
are Stick Lac ; removed in beads, or hardened 
drops, it is Seed Lac; and when spread into 
sheets, it is Shell Lac. Lac is used in dyeing 
scarlet, and in making Sealing-wax. 


child’s guide to knowledge. 


361 


What is Bitumen ? 

It is Mineral Pitch; it is a solid, brittle, 
and inflammable substance, found on the bor¬ 
ders of the Dead Sea, hence called the As¬ 
phaltic Lake. It is also obtained from the 
West Indies. 

What is Asphaltum ? 

It is a substance resembling Bitumen. In 
the island of Trinidad is a lake of Asphaltum, 
called Tar Lake, which, when first viewed, re¬ 
sembles glass. It emits a strong odor, per¬ 
ceptible at ten miles distance. 

Is this Asphaltum a liquid, that it is called a Lake ? 

Its appearance is that of water; as still water, 
when it reflects the sun, is sometimes called 
“glassy water.” In hot weather Tar Lake 
melts, or liquefies, to the depth of an inch. 

Is this Lake extensive ? 

It is three miles in circumference, and cir¬ 
cular ; the depth is not ascertained. 

What is Petroleum ? 

It is a natural mixture of Asphaltum and 
Naphtha, a combustible fluid. It is found in 
wells, a few feet deep, into which it flows. 

Is Petroleum made useful ? 

In some parts of Asia petroleum is used by 
the natives, both for light and fuel. 

31 


362 child’s guide to knowledge. 

What are Spirits of Turpentine ? 

Spirits of Turpentine is properly Oil of 
Turpentine. Oils are not always greasy. 
This oil is mixed with resin in the juice of the 
pine-tree. 

How are Spirits of Turpentine obtained ? 

By distilling turpentine the spirit evapo¬ 
rates, and is collected in a fluid state, while 
the resin remains. Resin set on fire, burnt a 
certain time and then extinguished, is Shoe¬ 
makers’ Wax. 

What does the Shoemaker do with this Wax? 

He rubs it upon the flaxen thread : by means 
of it the fibres of the thread adhere, and are 
made stronger. 

What is Natron ? 

It is a sort of natural soap found floating on 
the top of certain lakes in Egypt. These, 
called the Natron Lakes, are six in number. 
The natron is collected once in a year. 

M what part of Egypt are these Lakes ? 

The Natron Lakes are in the Natron Yalley; 
they extend about sixteen miles, are west of 
the Nile, and contain common salt. 

What use is made of Natron ? 

It is used, both in Egypt and Syria, in wash¬ 
ing and bleaching linens, and in the manu¬ 
facture of glass. 


child’s guide to knowledge. 363 

What is Asbestos ? 

Asbestos is a silvery white mineral, with 
slender filaments, which may be woven, and 
cannot be burnt to ashes. 

Where is Asbestos found ? 

In Scotland, and in the island of Anglesey. 
The word Asbestos signifies Inconsumable. 
Asbestos is only made into small articles, as 
purses and mere curiosities. 


What are the great divisions of Animal Life ? 

Animals are described under four divisions: 
the Yertebrata, the Mollusca, the Articulata, 
and the Kadiata. All animals having a back¬ 
bone, or spine, are Yertebrata. 

What animals are these ? 

The Yertebrated animals are Man, all 
Quadrupeds, Keptiles, and Fishes; the other 
three divisions have no spine, nor any bones. 
The spine is sometimes called the Yertebral 
column. It sustains the head and limbs. 

What are the Molluscous Animals ? 

The Oyster, the Clam, and other shelled 
animals. Shells are Univalve, Bivalve, and 
Multivalve. Worms, or Yermes, which have 
no shells, are of this class. 



364 child’s guide to knowledge. 


What is this distinction ? 

Molluscs, as they are called, when Uni¬ 
valve, have but one shell; Bivalves have two, 
and Multi valves have several. 

What is the history of Shells called ? 

It is Conchology. Some shells are of great 
beauty. They are composed chiefly of lime, 
but take a fine polish, and some are spotted 
with beautiful colors. 



A Lobster. 


What are Crustacea? 

They are Lobsters, Crabs, and other thin- 
shelled Molluscs : the Crustacea have legs to 
move with, and claws to seize their prey, but 
within they have no bones. Their legs are 
articulated, or jointed. 

Where do the Crustacea live ? 

They live in the water and are Oviparous. 










child’s guide to knowledge. 


365 


Crabs, when first batched from the eggs, are 
very small; they may often be found, half the 
size of the five-cent piece, in the oyster, which 
feeds on young Crustacea. 

Of what color is the Lobster naturally ? 

When alive he is of a blackish green, but 
when boiled he becomes of a very vivid 
scarlet. His flesh is very good food. 

Are Worms of any use ? 

They are not of much use to mankind, but 
they may enjoy their lives in their own way. 
The Leech is^ useful to the sick; the Red 
Earth Worm, which we see turned up with 
the soil, is a harmless animal. 

Why are men called “worms of the dust?” 

That is figurative language, intended to 
express that, while we live in this world, we 
resemble, in some respects, the least of God’s 
creatures. 

In what respects do animals differ from all inanimate 
beings ? 

A stone is inanimate. An Animal of the 
lowest form has some Intelligence; he feels 
that he lives; this is Consciousness. He re¬ 
quires food, desires food, and knows what is 
proper for him to eat. He eats for Nutrition; 
to keep himself alive. Most animals can 
change their place; this is Locomotion: they 
31* 


366 child’s glide to knowledge. 


also Sleep, and have young ones, which is 
Reproduction, and they all die. 

What, then, are the principal laws of animal life ? 

Intelligence, Consciousness, Locomotion, 
Appetite, Nutrition, Sleep, Reproduction, 
and Death. 

Can you explain these ? 

Intelligence is the power of knowing some¬ 
thing, more or less; Consciousness, the feel¬ 
ing that we are alive; Locomotion, the ability 
to move according to some purpose; Appe¬ 
tite, desire of something. 

What do other laws signify? 

Nutrition is support of life by means of 
food; Sleep, suspension of consciousness; 
Reproduction, producing more of the same 
kind; and Death, the termination of animal 
life. 

Can you tell what becomes of a dead body? 

It returns to its elements. The bones fall 
to pieces, but they continue to be lime and 
whatever composes them; all the fluids of the 
body evaporate; and the solid part, which is 
very small, returns to the substances of which 
it was composed. 

Do not vegetables require nourishment ? 

They do, and derive it from the air and soil. 
The roots convey the principal nourishment 


child’s guide to knowledge. 367 

to the stem, the branches, the leaves, and the 
fruit; but they cannot seek their own food. 

How do animals and vegetables differ ? 

Vegetables have no intelligence, no con¬ 
sciousness, no power of locomotion. Animals 
have a mouth to take in food ; nerves to enjoy 
the taste of it; a brain, whence the nerves 
issue; a stomach to receive it; and what are 
called organs of digestion to dissolve the food, 
in order to send it into the blood and keep 
the feeder alive. 


What are Keptiles ? 

They are vertebrated animals, oviparous or 
egg-layers, and without hair or feathers. All 
mammalia, from the elephant to the mouse, 
have a common structure, but reptiles differ 
much one from another. 

What is a Common Structure ? 

A common structure means that all those 
who have it are alike in their organs and 
functions. They have similar parts for simi¬ 
lar uses. 

Are the Mammalia all quadrupeds ? 

No. Man, the highest in this class, is a 
Biped, he has but two feet; the great Whale 
is a milk-giver, and has no feet. 



368 child’s guide to knowledge. 


Then how have they the same organs ? 

They have all a brain, a spine, lungs, and 
organs to receive and afford milk; whether 
large or small, human or brute, this is their 
common structure. 



An Alligator. 


Can you mention any Keptiles ? 

Crocodiles, Alligators, Lizards, Tortoises, 
Frogs, Toads, and all serpents or snakes. 
Some of these have smooth skins, plain or 
spotted, and others are covered with scales. 

What are Amphibious animals ? 

The Amphibia can live on the land and in 
the water. All Amphibia are not Keptiles, 
as the seal and otter, but many reptiles, as the 
Alligator, the Tortoise, and the Frog, are pro¬ 
per amphibia, as well as some snakes. 



child’s guide to knowledge. 369 

Are reptiles hurtful ? 

Many are very dangerous, as the Crocodiles 
of the Nile, the Copper-headed snake of hot 
countries, and the Kattlesnake of our Eastern 
States. 

Are the Alligator and Crocodile the same ? 

Not exactly; but Cuvier, an eminent French 
naturalist, says they are so much alike that 
they are only varieties of the same family, as 
a white rose and a yellow one are varieties of 
one family of flowers. 

Are Alligators anywhere numerous ? 

They may be seen in countless multitudes 
in some of the rarely-frequented waters of 
South America, watching for their prey, bask¬ 
ing in the sun, or sleeping on the banks. 

Will Alligators attack a man ? 

Yery rarely, except in defence of their eggs 
or their little ones. Their principal food is 
fish. 

Where do they lay their eggs ? 

In the sand exposed to the sun. They lay 
from fifty to sixty eggs in one place; the mother, 
however, never long quits the vicinity, taking 
care of the young ones when hatched. 

What does she do for her Progeny at first ? 

She takes her way to the. water, followed by 
her brood. More than half her eggs have 


370 child’s guide to knowledge. 

been eaten by the predacious vulture, which 
watches an opportunity to pounce upon and 
devour them. 

What is the size of the Alligator when hatched ? 

It is about six inches long, while the parent 
animal is often fifteen feet in length. The 
Mississippi, the rivers of South Carolina and 
of Florida, are stocked with Alligators, fre¬ 
quently seen followed by the young family. 

What is the Cayman ? 

The Cayman, smaller than the North Ameri¬ 
can alligator, is one of the family found in the 
rivers of South America. 

What are Lizards ? 

Lizards, shaped much like the alligator, are 
harmless animals of different sizes, some not 
more than five or six inches long, and natives 
of hot countries. It does not appear that the 
lizard is amphibious. 

Is the lizard an offensive animal ? 

Lizards often frequent houses in the East 
and West Indies, and are favorites in families. 
One sort is readily tamed, eating and drinking 
from the hand of any person. It pines and 
dies in confinement. 

Are lizards found in Europe ? 

This pretty and graceful creature may be 


child’s guide to knowledge. 371 

seen in some parts of England, Scotland, and 
Ireland, but not on the continent. 

What do lizards feed upon ? 

They subsist chiefly on Insects. The lizard 
comes out of its hiding-place when the sun 
shines, watches for its prey, and when it sees 
an insect darts upon it with its little sharp 
teeth, and instantly swallows it. 

Does the lizard lay eggs like the Crocodile ? 

Ho, the lizard produces the young ones 
alive; generally from three to six, which soon 
run about and take care of themselves. It is 
Yiviparous, producing young ones alive, and 
not eggs. 


What is the Boa Constrictor ? 

It is an animal; the largest and most for¬ 
midable of the serpent kind. Some of the 
species are thirty and forty feet in length. 
The Boa can swallow a goat, a sheep, or a 
deer, whole. 

Does he take it into his mouth at once ? 

Ho, he darts himself at his victim, winds 
himself round it, and kills the animal by Con¬ 
striction ; that is, he squeezes it to death. 

Does he then swallow the animal ? 

A gentleman once saw a Boa two hours 
and a half swallowing a goat, and afterwards 



372 child’s guide to knowledge. 



The Boa Constrictor. 


he took no food for three weeks. The Boa 
does not Masticate or chew his food. 

Of what country is he a native ? 

He is found in Africa, in Borneo, and in 
the island of Java. He feeds both on fish and 
flesh. He will coil his tail round the branch 
of a tree, and precipitate himself upon any 
animal which seeks shelter under the tree. 

Where is its Domicile or place of abode ? 

Always on the borders of lakes, rivers, and 
swamps. It will dip down from the trees 
upon animals that come to drink, and seize 
fishes in the water. 



child’s guide to knowledge. 373 

Can any Boa be seen in England ? 

The Boa is kept in the great Menagerie of 
the Zoological Garden in London. He is in 
a strong cage and may he viewed safely. He 
is fed with rabbits and fowls, and seems to 
have no objection to hair and feathers. 

Is the Boa venomous ? 

Ho. Yenom is a poison contained in the 
teeth of certain serpents, which, when the 
animal bites, is squeezed through minute holes 
in the teeth, and poisons the person bitten. 

What is the effect of poison so imbibed ? 

It enters into the blood of the bitten person, 
causes inflammation, and, at last, Death. The 
Boa has no venom. He is sometimes called 
the Python. 

What snakes are poisonous ? 

The Copper-1 leaded snake, the Rattlesnake, 
and some others besides. 

What is Hibernation ? 

It is the deep sleep into which some animals 
fall, and in which they continue in the cold 
season of the year. They cannot then feel 
the cold, and can live without eating. 

Where do the hibernating animals keep themselves ? 

Some dig holes in the ground, line their 
little domicile with leaves, and store it with 
nuts and other provisions before winter com- 
32 


374 child’s guide to knowledge. 

mences. This is done to afford them food 
when they shall awake. 

What animals do this ? 

The Marmot and the Hamster, in Switzer¬ 
land. They lose their fat in winter, come out 
very lean in spring, recover their spirits and 
their flesh in summer, and in autumn make 
ready for winter. 

Where do other animals then keep themselves ? 

Bats retire to caves, to the hollows of old 
trees, or to uninhabited buildings, where they 
may be seen hanging in clusters. They hang 
by means of little hooks on their leathern 
wings. 

Where are frogs in winter ? 

Frogs congregate at the bottom of ponds, 
lizards hide in the clefts of rocks, and snails 
adhere to the walls of cellars and other places. 
Spiders and flies find secret crevices for the 
winter, whence they issue in spring. 

Is the migration of Birds very regular ? 

Yes; we are told in the Bible that “the 
Stork in the heaven knoweth her appointed 
time, and the Turtle, the Crane, and the Swal¬ 
low observe the time of their coming.” These 
appointed times are the departure and return 
of birds. 


child’s guide to knowledge. 375 

What bird is the Turtle ? 

It is the Turtle-dove, a wild pigeon which 
is migratory. The domestic pigeon being 
sheltered and fed, remains all winter near the 
family that provides for him. 

How are birds described ? 

Birds are Yertebrated; they are Oviparous, 
and with some exceptions the female sits upon 
her eggs and brings out her brood of little 
ones, not forsaking them until they can pro¬ 
vide for themselves. Sitting on eggs with in¬ 
tention to hatch out young birds, is Incubation. 


Are birds formed alike ? 

They are all alike in some particulars. All 
have two wings, two legs, a horny bill, and a 
body covered with feathers. 

Have birds teeth ? 

The Bill or Beak of birds serves all the 
purposes of teeth, with which they are not 
supplied. The human mouth has the teeth 
set in the upper and the lower jaw; the two 
parts of a bird’s bill are the upper and lower 
Mandible. 

Does the Bill serve many uses ? 

It seizes and bruises their food; it serves 
for a hand in carrying; it is the instrument 



376 child’s guide to knowledge. 

for cleaning and dressing their feathers, for 
building their nests, and for attacking their 
enemies. 

How are the bones of birds formed? 

They are light and thin, and contain air 
which makes the bird light whenever he flies. 
His wings, the spread feathers of the tail, and 
the small weight of his body, enable him to 
float easily in the air. 

Are all birds of equal lightness ? 

Ho: the Ostrich has a heavy body and 
short wings; she can hardly fly at all, but 
runs rapidly flapping her wings as she courses 
along. Domestic fowls have short wings and 
heavy bodies, and can only take short flights. 

Where do birds usually live ? 

Generally on trees and bushes; the Lark 
builds her nest in the grass, and what is called 
the Bank Swallow makes hers in the soft soil 
on the sides of hills. 

Where do Aquatic birds make nests ? 

Aquatic birds swim in water, and build 
their nests upon little islands in rivers, and 
among rushes on the borders of streams. The 
Swan, the Wild Duck, and the Coot, are 
aquatic birds. 

What is the food of birds ? 

Birds that live on flesh are Carnivorous, as 


child’s guide to knowledge. 377 

the vulture; those that subsist on grain are 
Granivorous. 

Are birds useful ? 

They are in various ways. They feed on 
worms, on caterpillars, and insects, which 
would be injurious to the leaves and fruit of 
trees. Some destroy mice, while others feed 
on seeds and grain. 

Are they beneficial in other ways! 

Yes ; their songs delight us, their feathers 
and down add to our comforts, and the flesh 
of many is wholesome food. 

Have birds different characters and habits ? 

Yes : some are domestic and others preda¬ 
ceous ; there are the solitary and the gregari¬ 
ous, the ferocious and the peaceable; the 
large and the diminutive, the disgusting and 
the beautiful; the harsh screamer and the 
sweet singer. Every bird has its own par¬ 
ticular voice. 

Are birds found everywhere ? 

Yes; in town and country; in the woods 
and fields; in the desert and solitary place; 
in the bright tropic land, and in the cold 
Arctic ocean. 

Are domestic birds Carnivorous ? 

No, they are Omnivorous, will eat almost 
any thing. Their principal food is grain, but 
32 * 


378 child’s guide to knowledge. 


they feed on insects also, and will take a little 
meat prepared for them. 

Is a bird’s nest ingeniously made ? 

It is made with great industry, larger or 
smaller as the birds require ; securely placed 
that it may not fall, impervious to rain, and 
soft within, as a comfortable abode for un¬ 
fledged birds. 



Are birds ever destructive ? 

Birds are sometimes injurious ; some peck 
ripe fruit, others, such as the Vulture and the 
great Condor of the Andes, seize and devour 
colts, calves, and sheep; but the mischief they 
do is much less than the services they render 
to mankind. 

What birds are especially serviceable ? 

A sort of Vulture, sometimes called the 




child’s guide to knowledge. 379 

Scavenger, known in the East, clears the 
streets of cities of such offensive substances 
as might else produce disease. 

What is the Stork ? 

The Stork is so useful that some people 
think she is a special blessing from Provi¬ 
dence. In summer Storks may be seen in 
great numbers in the cities of Holland. They 
will eat rats and mice, and many things that 
would be injurious in towns. 

Is the Stork friendly to his benefactors ? 

He approaches their dwellings after his 
winter migration as if he expected to find a 
home. The Hollanders erect a false chimney, 
and the Germans a platform on their houses, 
to receive these welcome guests. 

Is the Stork a large bird ? 

He belongs to a family called Waders, be¬ 
cause they walk into the water to take fish. 
They have long legs and long necks and bills. 
Some measure two and a half feet from the 
tail to the bill. 


What is the last class of Vertebrata ? 

Fishes. These dwell only in the water, and 
differ from the preceding classes in their mode 
of breathing; they have no lungs, but breathe 



380 child’s guide to knowledge. 

by means of Gills. These are fringes on each 
side of the head. 

Can fishes live under water ? 

Not very long; they must come to the sur¬ 
face for air to breathe. Without breathing 
they cannot live. 

Are fishes injurious to man ? 

One especially is—the terrible Shark. This 
is a large fish infesting certain coasts. A man 
who falls into the water, or one who is swim¬ 
ming, is liable to lose his life or a limb, by the 
jaws of this great blood-thirsty fish. 

What is their general character ? 

Many are gregarious, and seem to be social 
and playful. They may be seen at sea in 
Shoals or flocks, sporting together, and chasing 
one another. 

Are fishes predaceous ? 

Most of them are—the larger feeding on the 
smaller. Providence has made them so to 
subsist, but generally they are gentle and beau¬ 
tiful creatures. 

What does their beauty consist in ? 

In the elegance of their shape and move¬ 
ments in the water, and in the brilliant tints 
of the scales which cover them; sometimes 
gold-colored, sometimes silvery, and often of 
the finest hues of blue and purple. 


child’s guide to knowledge. 381 

How do they make their way through the water ? 

By means of their fins, which contain hones 
arranged somewhat like fan-sticks, and con¬ 
nected by Membranes or skins. The Dorsal 
fin is on the back, and the Lateral fins at the 
sides. 

Are fish produced alive ? 

The Whale, the Narwhal, and the Dolphin 
belong to the class Mammalia, and produce 
the young alive, but other fishes are produced 
from eggs. 

What are fishes’ eggs called ? 

Their eggs or roe is Spawn. A single roe 
contains hundreds of thousands of eggs. 
Fishes swim vast distances to deposit their 
eggs in sand or gravel, where the sun hatches 
them. 

Does this immense number of eggs come to maturity ? 

Some are devoured by fishes of other kinds, 
and many of the young fishes become a prey 
to other fishes. Those that live—the young 
Fry, as they are called—provide for them¬ 
selves as'soon as they can swim. 

What fish is esteemed a great luxury for the table ? 

Salmon, either fresh or smoked. A large 
salmon weighs fifty or sixty pounds. The 
salmon is taken in rivers. 

Are herrings numerous ? 

Herrings, in the warm seasons, float in vast 


382 child’s guide to knowledge. 

shoals into the ocean from the arctic seas, and 
are caught in abundance, and salted. They 
are wholesome food, whether eaten fresh, 
pickled, or smoked. 

Are mackerel very abundant in the ocean ? 

They are. The mackerel fishery is a profit¬ 
able business. Hundreds of thousands of bar¬ 
rels of salted mackerel are consumed every 
year in the United States. 

Where are Cod taken ? 

Hear the island of Newfoundland, in the 
Atlantic Ocean. Salted cod is a common 
article of food. 



An Insect. 


What are articulated ani mals ? 

Those which have joints in their limbs, and 
no bones. These are Insects. They have 
wings, but no lungs. They breathe through 
little holes in their bodies called Spiracles. 


child’s guide to knowledge. 


383 


Why are they called Insects ? 

Because they appear to be cut almost into 
three pieces. A section or Segment is a part 
cut off or divided from other parts of a thing. 
Such a portion is the section of a whole. 

How are insects defined ? 

As articulated animals, possessing six legs, 
two antennae, two wings, and sometimes two 
pairs, two eyes, and often more, a small brain, 
oviparous, and attaining to the adult state by 
metamorphosis—that is, change of form. 

Into what sections is the insect divided ? 

Into three—the Head, the Thorax or chest, 
and the Abdomen (the lowest and largest of 
the three). 

What are Antennae ? 

The Antennae are little threads, sometimes 
not thicker than a hair, which project from 
each side of the head near the eyes. An¬ 
tennae may be longer or shorter, and are 
jointed. 

What is the tongue of insects ? 

The tongue of insects may be called a Pro¬ 
boscis or trunk. Many insects feed on honey 
and other fluids, and the proboscis serves as a 
pump to draw up vegetable juices from the 
flower-cup or tube. 

What does the butterfly’s proboscis resemble ? 


384 child’s guide to knowledge. 

It is curled up like a spiral wire, and is un¬ 
coiled when the insect intends to get his food 
from flowers. 

Is a fly’s proboscis like a butterfly’s ? 

A fly’s proboscis is like a club ; he thrusts 
it out of his head and imbibes a few particles 
of sugar and of milk whenever he comes in 
the way of them. 

What has he been called ? 

“Busy, curious, thirsty fly;” and in this 
character flies are very troublesome ; but they 
do some good in the world. These little scav¬ 
engers devour substances that might corrupt 
and become hurtful. 

Does the proboscis perform any office except feeding ? 

It serves the musquito for a sheath to his 
sting, and other insects for a gimlet or borer. 
By means of it they make holes in trees, in 
wood, and even in mortar. 

Do insects fly fast ? 

It is astonishing how fast they will fly. A 
few flies will accompany a horse at full gallop. 

Have insects never more than six feet? 

They generally have no more; but some 
have eight, twelve, and even as many as a 
hundred. 

Are insects ever destructive ? 

They are often very much so. A certain 


child’s guide to knowledge. 385 

fly will devour whole harvests of wheat; 
grasshoppers in immense numbers will destroy 
the pastures for cattle, and flights of locusts in 
millions will darken the air, and consume 
every green thing where they alight. 

Do these calamities occur frequently ? 

Yery rarely. In Africa and the East, the 
locust is sometimes a dreadful scourge to the 
inhabitants; and the Hessian fly sometimes 
destroys the w r heat in our fields in this coun¬ 
try. 

Are insects gregarious ? 

The bee, wasp, hornet, ant, and locust are 
so, and some others. The Termites, an Ant 
of hot countries, collects in millions, forming 
hills, divided within into galleries and cells for 
keeping provisions, depositing eggs, and cher¬ 
ishing the Larva. 

Are insects of various sizes ? 

They are from the largest Beetle to those 
diminutive creatures which are of the length 
of a fiftieth part of a common pin ; but each 
and all have perfect organs, and enjoy their 
little lives. 

Are insects found in every place? 

They are. Every leaf, every pool, every 
bank of every stream, with its flowers, con¬ 
tains insects, and they also make visits to our 
33 


386 child’s guide to knowledge. 


houses. These all know where and how to 
procure their food. 

Ho-w are insects useful ? 

They are so in what they destroy, for the 
most part. They constitute the food of many 
birds and reptiles, and they afford some valu¬ 
able products. 

What are these products ? 

The silk of the Bombyx-mori, the lac of the 
East Indies, the honey of the Bee, the dye of 
the Cochineal insect, and the medicinal virtue 
of Cantharides. 

Are locusts ever used as food ? 

They have been so used in the East, for of 
John the Baptist it is said, “ His meat was 
locusts and wild honey.” 

Are spiders insects ? 

"We call them so, but naturalists call the 
spider Arachnida, because her structure and 
habits differ from insects generally. 

How do spiders differ from insects generally ? 

Spiders have no antennae, nor any wings. 
They have eight eyes and eight legs, and are 
not subject to transformation. Spiders are of 
all countries. 

Are they ever dangerous to life ? 

In hot countries, some of this species are 
large enough to cover the palm of one’s hand, 


child’s guide to knowledge. 387 


are hairy, and their bite causes inflammation. 
Spiders are carnivorous, they feed on flies, and 
their cobwebs serve to ensnare their unwary 
victims. 



Starfish. 


What are the Polypi? 

Those animals belonging to water. They 
are often attached to rocks, though sometimes 
floating about, and have no limbs. One spe¬ 
cies looks like a flower, and is called the Sea- 
anemone ; others look like a mass of Jelly. 

On what do the Polypi feed ? 

On substances floating in the water, marine 
plants, and diminutive animals supplied by 
the same element. 

Of what use are the Polypi ? 

We do not know all the uses of God’s crea- 


388 child’s guide to knowledge. 

tures, but sure we are that he has made 
nothing without benevolent design. 

What is a Star-fish ? 

It is not a fish, though called so; it is a 
stellate or star-shaped animal, and lives in the 
sea. He is said to be an enemy of the oyster, 
entering his open shell, and sucking him to 
death. The Star-fish is one of the Radiata. 

What do you understand by Radiation? 

Rays are lines diverging from a centre. The 
hub of a wheel is a Centre, and the Spokes 
are so many rays. Radiated flowers like the 
Aster are common. 

What are the parts of a radiated flower ? 

The centre or disk, and the petals or flower- 
leaves. The petals Diverge or point in differ¬ 
ent directions from the Centre or Disk. 

What are Zoophytes ? 

Zoophytes include Polypi and Madripores. 
These are the marine animals which form 
Sponges and Coral reefs. The proper name 
of the builders of Coral reefs is Lithophyte. 


What are the most useful draught animals in all countries ? 

Horses, asses, and mules, wherever they 
are known and can be sustained ; Camels in 
Arabia; Llamas in Peru; Elephants and Buf- 



child’s guide to knowledge. 389 

faloes in India; Dogs in Kamtschatka and 
in Greenland; and Reindeer in Lapland. 

Where are Oxen used ? 

The patient Ox is made useful in many 
countries for slow labor, particularly in Eng¬ 
land and in the United States. 

What is Zoology ? 

The science which describes animals. 

Who is Zoologist ? 

The person who acquaints himself with the 
structure and habits of animals, and who de¬ 
scribes them truly. 

What are the dwellings of the North American Indians ? 

They cut down trees of a certain size, drive 
the trunks into the earth, interweave the 
branches atop, and fill up the open spaces 
with clay, leaving an opening to pass in and 
out. They have no doors, chimneys, nor win¬ 
dows. 

What is this dwelling called ? 

It is a Wigwam. The floor is solid earth, 
the fire is kindled in the middle, and the 
smoke goes out at the top. 

What is the house of the Caffres ? 

It looks like an inverted bowl, being a 
regular dome in shape. It is entered by a 
hole like the mouth of an oven, about three 
feet high, and those to whom it belongs creep 
38 * 


390 child’s guide to knowledge. 



A Tent 


into it on “ all fours.” Such are the wretched 
habitations of savages. 

Where did the Patriarchs, Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob, live ? 

They dwelt in tents, which might be taken 
down and set up whenever it pleased the 
owner to change his place of abode. The 
Arabs still inhabit tents. 

What is a Log Cabin ? 

It is a house made of logs cut of equal 
length, and laid one upon another, the logs 
being fastened into posts at each corner. 

Who live in log houses ? 

Persons who go to new countries, and who 
cannot procure the bricks, marble, cut stone, 
mortar, and glass, that are employed in our 
houses. 



child’s guide to knowledge. 391 

Were there ever magnificent cities in Africa containing 
great buildings ? 

Carthage was one; and in Barca, and all 
along the coast of Africa, great ruins of cities 
are still found, upon the Mediterranean. 

What was Egyptian Architecture ? 

The modern Egyptians live in houses with¬ 
out windows towards the street, while the 
poorer sort of people have comfortless dwell¬ 
ings, but live much in the open air. 

What edifices erected by the ancient Egyptians still re¬ 
main ? 

These are chiefly vast temples, palaces, and 
pyramids, built of stone. The temples were 
designed for their idolatrous worship, and are 
ornamented with many images ; frequently 
with figures of the bird Ibis, which they held 
in great veneration. 

For what were the Pyramids designed ? 

It is supposed that they were places of in¬ 
terment for princes, ancient kings of Egypt, 
and their families. 

In what part of Egypt are the Pyramids ? 

They stand in a sandy tract along the Nile; 
they are forty in number, being smaller and 
larger, and extend, from the first to the last, 
about fifty miles. 

Which is the largest of the Pyramids ? 

That of Cheops, about five miles from Cairo. 


392 child’s guide to knowledge. 

It is five hundred feet in height, seven hun¬ 
dred and twenty feet on each side of the base. 
It is ascended by steps to the summit, which 
consists of nine large stones, each of the weight 
of a ton, it is presumed. 

Of what are the pyramids made ? 

Of hewn granite and limestone on the out¬ 
side. The Pyramids have been entered by 
curious travellers, and they have found long 
and intricate passages in them. 

Are any ancient tombs existing in Egypt ? 

There are grottoes and excavations which 
were used as places of interment. These are 
now inhabited by poor Arabs glad to be shel¬ 
tered anywhere. The halls contained in some 
of these excavations were adorned with paint¬ 
ings and statues. 

What do these pictures and sculptures exhibit ? 

The employments of the people, their fu¬ 
nerals, their domestic animals, and the navi¬ 
gation of the Nile. 


What is Hindoo Architecture ? 

It consists of temples dedicated to Hindoo 
gods, and excavations in the solid rock con¬ 
taining curious images carved in stone. The 
most famous of these are at Elephanta, at 
Salsette, and Ellora. 



child’s guide to knowledge. 393 



A Pagoda. 


Where is Elephanta ? 

It is an island seven miles from Bombay, a 
city on the western side of Hindostan. The 
island is so called from the figure of an ele¬ 
phant, the size of life, carved in stone in a 
cave of the island. 

Is this a natural cave ? 

No; it is a temple one hundred and twenty 
feet long, cut in solid stone, containing three 
rows of columns, and along the sides fifty 
statues. 

Whom do these statues represent ? 

They represent the hideous deities of the 
country; they are from twelve to fifteen feet 
high, and have each three or four pairs of 
hands. 




394 child’s guide to knowledge. 

Are there other similar works of immense labor ? 

There are others of greater magnificence in 
the island of Salsette, and atEllora; the former 
contains sculptured elephants, tigers, and other 
animals; the latter splendid temples, divided 
into many apartments, all hewn out of solid 
rock. 

What is the Temple of Juggernaut ? 

A temple of great magnificence consecrated 
to an idol. It is resorted to every year by 
multitudes of worshippers; the domains of this 
temple feed thousands of cows, which the 
heathen people regard as a sacred animal. 

What is the domestic architecture of Hindostan ? 

Those who can afford the better sort of 
houses live in such as are made of bricks, 
burnt or dried in the sun; the poor people 
construct slight habitations of bamboo. 

Do the Asiatics live in high houses ? 

Hot usually. The houses of the rich are 
built round courts, and cover a large space of 
ground. In hot countries houses which are 
not high, and which have large Yerandas, 
such as we call piazzas, are more free of the 
heated air which rises above them. 

Are there very curious buildings in China ? 

The Pagodas are temples consecrated to 
idols. Temples are called Pagodas from Hin- 


child’s guide to knowledge. 395 

dostan to China. A great Pagoda in Pekin 
is made of Porcelain. The pagoda is con¬ 
structed in a succession of towers, one rising 
out of the other, being smaller and smaller to 
the top. 

Where do the worshippers assemble ? 

In the Court, an inclosed space surround¬ 
ing the pagoda. The lower part of the pa¬ 
goda consists of a porch, a vestibule, and a 
sanctuary. 

What is a Sanctuary ? 

It is a sacred or holy place; a place of wor¬ 
ship. One apartment of pagan temples only 
is the Sanctuary; in that is the image of the 
idol. The Bonzes, or Chinese priests, often 
have their habitations, which are little cells, 
near the pagoda. 

Are there remains of ancient architecture on this con¬ 
tinent ? 

Yes, both in Central America and in Mex¬ 
ico have been found immense structures of 
stone now neglected and overgrown with wild 
plants. 

What do these edifices display ? 

All these edifices show great labor and skill 
in the preparation of the bricks and stones of 
which they are made, and also in the forms 
in which they are disposed. 


396 child’s guide to knowledge. 

Do the present inhabitants know what was the design of 
these buildings ? 

The descendants of the Aborigines know 
not when they were erected, nor for what use. 
The present population of those countries is 
chiefly Spanish. 

What was the Grecian architecture ? 

What we principally know of it is the re¬ 
mains of ancient temples and theatres. The 
Grecian architecture is known by its orders, 
that is, by the form of its pillars. The orders 
are the Doric, the Ionic, and the Corinthian ; 
to these have been added two more, the Tus¬ 
can, which is Italian, and the Composite. 

What temples yet remain ? 

Some in Athens, and others in Italy, in 
Sicily, in Asia Minor, and in different parts 
of Greece. The Greeks not only occupied 
Greece, but they sent colonies to southern 
Italy, to Marseilles in France, and all round 
the coasts of Asia Minor. 

What are the most remarkable Greek temples ? 

The Parthenon, and what is called the Lan¬ 
tern of Demosthenes, in Athens, and those of 
Psestum in Italy. 

How are the houses of the Athenians described ? 

They generally consisted of two stories, the 
upper for the women of the family, and the 


child’s guide to knowledge. 397 

lower for the men. On the roof was a plat¬ 
form, which served the family for taking the 
open air without going abroad. A Dog was 
kept in the court to drive away thieves. 


What was the Roman architecture ? 

It was partly imitated from the Greeks. 
The Romans conquered Tarentum in southern 
Italy b. c. 272; they took Syracuse, a Greek 
city in the island of Sicily, b. c. 212, and made 
themselves masters of Corinth b. c. 147. In 
all these cities they became acquainted with 
and possessed works of Grecian art. 

What are Roman remains ? 

Public roads, Aqueducts, Temples, The¬ 
atres, Bridges, and Thermae, or Baths, and 
the Cloaca, or great Sewer of Rome. 

Are these remains confined to Italy! 

Ho; the Romans were at first, seven hun¬ 
dred years before the birth of Christ, only a 
small people dwelling, on the banks of the 
river Tiber; but they increased their posses¬ 
sions to a vast extent. 

How was the Roman empire increased ? 

The Romans sent armies and ships of war 
to different countries, and one after another 
obtained possession of all the territory from 
34 



398 child’s guide to knowledge. 

Britain to tlie Euphrates; excluding Russia 
and all the northern countries of Europe. 

What was the effect of these conquests ? 

Wherever the Romans possessed the ter¬ 
ritory they sent soldiers to keep the people 
under the Roman Rule, and collected Taxes 
or Revenue every year from the conquered 
countries. 



The Pantheon. 


Did the Komans thus do any good ? 

They taught ignorant people useful arts, 
made good roads, instructed barbarians in the 
Latin language, established schools, and erect¬ 
ed public buildings wherever they might be 
useful. 

What did they learn themselves ? 

When they conquered well-instructed peo¬ 
ple, as the Greeks were in all places where 









child’s guide to knowledge. 399 

they resided, the Eomans learned whatever 
was desirable for their own improvement, 
and thus they learned the Greek architecture. 

, Did the Eomans imitate the Greeks exactly ? 

No, they adopted what suited their wants 
and their taste. The most remarkable re¬ 
mains of the ancient Eoman architecture in 
Eome are the Aqueducts, the Coliseum, and 
the Pantheon. 

What are the Aqueducts ? 

Our aqueducts are pipes laid under the 
surface, those of the Eomans were entirely 
above ground. They were laid upon arches 
in succession, were fifty and sixty miles in 
length, and conveyed abundance of pure and 
wholesome water to the great and populous 
city of Eome. 

What is the Coliseum ? 

It was an amphitheatre,—a circular building 
of stone, erected to contain eighty thousand 
spectators, witnesses of fights between men 
whose business it was to attack and kill each 
other if they could. These were the Gladiators. 

Did they not also exhibit fights of wild beasts ? 

Yes; they sent to Africa for lions and tigers, 
and set them upon one another; these were 
w butchered to make a Eoman holiday.” 


400 child’s gtjide to knowledge. 

Who built the Coliseum ? 

The Emperor Elavius Vespasian, a. d. 72, 
when he returned home after his ware in Ju¬ 
dea. It was called, in honor of him, the Fla¬ 
vian amphitheatre. 

What put an end to these cruel sports of the Eoman 
people ? 

The Christian religion. While most of the 
citizens of Rome continued to be pagans, from 
the time of our Saviour there were Christians 
among them. The Christian ministers at 
length persuaded the people that it was 
wicked and cruel to find their pleasure in the 
pain of man or of brute creatures. 

What is the Pantheon ? 

It is now a church in Rome, called St. 
Mary’s of the Rotunda. The walls are many 
feet in thickness, and the area or inclosure 
within these walls is one hundred and thirty- 
two feet in diameter; the height from the 
floor to the top of the dome is also one hun¬ 
dred and thirty-two feet, and the walls sixty 
feet. 

Is the Pantheon square ? 

Ho, it is round, and thence called the Ro¬ 
tunda, but it has a portico in front of it of 
sixteen Corinthian columns. The shafts are 
of red granite, the pedestals and capitals of 


child’s guide to knowledge. 401 


white marble. The light is admitted through 
a circle in the dome twenty-seven feet in di¬ 
ameter. 

Why was this edifice called the Pantheon ? 

Because it was, when first built, dedicated 
to all the gods of Borne ; it contained statues 
of all these divinities: of them it was deprived 
by barbarians who ravaged Borne in the fifth 
century. 

Were monuments erected in Eome in honor of great men ? 

Yes, there were triumphal arches, columns, 
and Mausoleums. 


What is a Triumphal Arch ? 

It is a heavy arch of stone extending over 
a street or road, having supporters on each 
side; it is many feet in thickness. Upon it 
are carved various figures to celebrate the 
actions of some hero. The arch of Titus rep¬ 
resents the captive Jews and other objects 
which Titus took at Jerusalem. 

What is the most remarkable column in Eome ? 

Trajan’s pillar; it is a column of marble, 
the pieces of which are fastened together by 
bronze; it is hollow within, and contains 
winding stairs by which it may be ascended ; 
upon the top once stood the statue of the Em- 
34* 



402 child’s guide to knowledge. 



A Triumphal Arch. 


peror Trajan, though St. Peter is now in his 
place. . 

How high is Trajan’s pillar ? 

It is one hundred and twenty-eight feet 
high, and at the foot measures eleven feet in 
diameter. Upon this pillar are sculptured 
figures of the different people, dwellers on the 
Danube and in Western Asia, whom Trajan 
conquered. 

What may be learned from this column ? 

The dress, arms, and general appearance of 
the people in the first century after Christ, 
represented on the column. 

What is a Mausoleum ? 

It is a splendid tomb erected to celebrate 
some deceased person. The tomb of Cecilia 




child’s guide to knowledge. 403 

Metella, at Home, is ninety feet in diameter, 
and is circular. She, who was interred there, 
was a lady of the Crassi family, but otherwise 
unknown. 

Are there remains of Baths in Borne ? 

There are several, once extensive and mag¬ 
nificent. These baths were for use of the rich 
particularly, and were very costly. They were 
called Thermae. Gardens were attached to 
them, and paintings adorned the walls. 

Was the domestic architecture of Borne splendid ? 

While the Romans were a poor people they 
dwelt in humble habitations, but when they 
became wealthy, the rich had magnificent 
country houses called Yillas; one proprietor 
having six or more such Yillas, and a marble 
palace in Rome besides. 

Had the Bomans slaves ? 

Yes, white men and women in great num¬ 
bers, sometimes prisoners taken in war, and 
sometimes children of slaves. Many of these 
were employed in erecting or in taking care 
of their grand houses. 

What is the most magnificent building in modern Italy ? 

St. Peter’s Church in Rome. Michael An¬ 
gelo was one of the architects of this edifice ; 
it was begun in the sixteenth century, and 
was more than a century in building, at a cost 


404 child’s guide to knowledge. 

of many millions of dollars. The fa$ade of 
St. Peter’s was finished 1640. 

What is Arabian architecture ? 

It is that of public buildings, either Mosques 
or Palaces, which have been erected by Ma¬ 
hometans in different countries since the sev¬ 
enth century. 

What are the Arabs called ? 

The Arabs who live in the country, and 
labor in different ways there, and who dwell 
in tents, are often called Bedouins. The early 
followers of Mahomet, who conquered the 
Barbary coast and settled there, were the 
Saracens, and those who went over to Spain 
from Morocco were the Moors. 

Were the Moors in Spain an industrious people ? 

Like the Arabs of Bagdad in Asia, they 
were ingenious, industrious, and acquainted 
with the mathematical sciences; they became 
wealthy, and erected buildings of great mag¬ 
nificence. 

Where were these edifices ? 

Chiefly in Damascus, Bagdad, and Cairo. 
The Moorish kings of Spain erected a mag¬ 
nificent mosque in Cordova, and the Alham¬ 
bra, a splendid palace in Granada. The Al¬ 
hambra is still admired by all who behold it 


child’s guide to knowledge. 405 



A Mosque. 


How may a Mosque be known ? 

By its Dome on the top, and by its Minarets 
or slender spires ascending from angles of the 
walls. The mosque of St. Sophia in Con¬ 
stantinople is the grandest in the world. 

What is Byzantine architecture ? 

The ancient name of Constantinople was 
Byzantium, and the architecture peculiar to 
that region has been imitated in different 
countries of Europe, 

What is Gothic architecture ? 

The Goths were barbarians from Germany, 
who took part of France and-Spain, and occu¬ 
pied the latter country for ages. In time they 
became peaceable, industrious, and wealthy, 
and built churches and houses in their own 












406 child’s guide to knowledge. 

way. The Gothic architecture is so named 
from them. 

Did the Goths invent this architecture ? 

It is supposed that they did not, and that 
it should be called Pointed architecture. It 
is, however, known best as Gothic architecture. 

What is one feature of Gothic architecture ? 

The pointed arch is one feature of Gothic 
architecture, as seen over doors or windows 
either of houses or churches. In Gothic 
churches the pillars are tall, often run up to 
the roof of the building, and are carved to re¬ 
semble several poles bound into one column. 

What is a groined ceiling ? 

"When arches supported by Gothic pillars 
cross each other, the ceiling so formed is 
groined. 

What is Ecclesiastical architecture ? 

That of Churches. The great churches of 
Europe, called Cathedrals, and all smaller 
buildings designed for the worship of God, 
are specimens, in different forms, of Ecclesi¬ 
astical architecture. 

Who introduced the structure of Cathedrals ? 

Hot any single person perhaps; but from 
the tenth century in Europe, and for many 
years after, certain ingenious mechanicians 


child’s guide to knowledge. 407 



A Church. 


formed themselves into companies of Masons 
in order to construct religious houses. 

Did the Masons of all countries know each other ? 

They had Signs, that is, movements or 
marks, by showing which a German mason 
would be known to another in France; and a 
French mason would likewise be recognized 
in Holland or in England, so that they were 
friendly to each other wherever they might 
meet. 

Did these Masons construct all churches alike ? 

They were formed in the shape of a cross, 
and adorned with towers and spires without, 
with carving of wood and stone within, be- 
sides beautiful windows of painted glass, and 
often with fine pictures. 




















408 


child’s guide to knowledge. 


Which are some of the grandest Cathedrals in Europe ? 

St. Peter’s in Rome; St. Paul’s in London; 
York Minster in the city of York, England; 
Notre Dame in Paris ; Strasburg Cathedral; 
the Cathedral of Cologne; and St. Stephens 
in Yienna. Salisbury Cathedral has the 
tallest spire in England. 

What remarkable specimens of architecture are there in 
New York. 

Trinity Church in Broadway is Gothic; the 
Dutch Reformed Church in La Fayette Place 
is Grecian, though disfigured by a steeple not 
in harmony with the form of the building; 
and the Tombs, a prison in Centre-street, of 
Egyptian architecture. 


INDEX 


Page. 

Aggregation. 243 

Agriculture. 24 

Agriculturist. 147 

Air. 15 

Alabaster. 161 

Alcohol. 66 

Alkalies. 137 

Alligators.369 

Allspice. 71 

Almonds. 79 

Alphabet. 322 

Althea. 314 

Alum. 348 

Amalgamation. 189 

Amber. 127 

American Art.341 

American fruits. 85 

Ancient modes of writing 53 

Ancient Gardens. 151 

Ancients, the. 45 

Animal Life. 363 

Annihilation. 231 

Anno Domini. 46 

Annual Plants. 35 

Antiquity of letters ... 52 

Apothecary. 139 

Aquafortis. 359 

Aqueducts. 399 

Arabic Numerals. 323 

Arbor-Vitae. 300 

Arch of Titus.401 

Arrow-root. 72 


Page. 


Arson. 98 

Artificers. 164 

Artisans. 164 

Artists. 164 

Asbestos. 363 

Asphaltum. 361 

Astronomy. 14 

Athenian Houses. 396 

Athens. 160 

Atmosphere. 13 

Augustus.'_331 

Bamboo. 275 

Banian-tree. 274 

Bananas. 79 

Barometer. 251 

Beer. 31 

Beer and Porter. 32 

Betel-nut. 73 

Birch. 308 

Bird of Paradise. 130 

Biscuit. 184 

Bitumen. 361 

Blackberry. 316 

Black-walnut. 176 

Bleaching. 91 

Boa-constrictor. 371 

Boats. 243 

Body and Mind. 28 

Books, by whom made, 

and how. 49 

Botanic Garden. 152 


35 

































































INDEX. 


410 


Page. 

Brandy. 76 

Brass. 205, 213 

Bread-fruit tree. 277 

Bricks. 164 

Bronze. 178 

Brooks. 270 

Brushes. 136 

Busts. 156 

Butter. 40 

Caffre huts. 389 

Calcination. 208, 215 

Calico. 102 

Caloric. 95 

Cameos. 128 

Camphene. 94 

Camphor.349 

Canals. 272 

Candles. 90 

Candlesticks. 178 

Canoes. 310 

Cantharides. 355 

Capers. 89 

Caraway. 72 

Carnelian.124 

Carpets. 191 

Carrara Marble. 152 

Cartoons. 120 

Cashmere Shawls. 120 

Castor Oil. 356 

Catacombs. 187 

Catalpa.304 

Cathedrals.406 

Cattle. 146 

Caxton. 50 

Cedar. 175 

Cedar of Lebanon.298 

Central Fire. 229, 232 

Century. 46 

Ceramicus. 187 

Chamois. 116 

Cheese. 41 


Page. 

Chestnut.284 

Chestnuts. 87 

Chintz. 102 

Chloroform. 354 

Christian Art. 336 

Chronometer.200 

Cigars. 143 

Cinnabar.211 

Cinnamon. 72 

Citron. 78 

Classes of Animals .... 363 

Classes of Plants. 21 

Classic Art. 336 

Classics, the.47, 181 

Clay. 241 

Clepsydra. 197 

Climates. 22 

Clocks and Watches ... 198 
Clothing—Wool, Cotton, 

Silk, and Fur. 98 

Cloves. 72 

Coals. 96 

Cochineal.348 

Cocoa. 68 

Cocoa-nuts. 80 

Cod. 382 

Coffee. 66 

Coliseum. 399 

Combs. 132 

Combustion. 66 

Commerce.37, 147 

Condiments. 69 

Conquerors. 253 

Conservatory. 84 

Cooking. 71 

Copper. 213 

Copperas. 359 

Coral. 123 

Cork.288 

Cotton. 100 

Crayons. 345 

Creation. 12 



















































































INDEX. 411 


Page. 


Crops and harvest. 24 

Crustacea.364 

Crystallization. 64 

Culinary Vegetables... 149 

Curiosity.223 

Currants. 83 

Cypress. 299 

Dates and palm-trees .. 81 

Day and Night. 193 

Decalogue. 61 

Decomposition. 71 

Delta.270 

Deluge, the .. 90 

Density, Hardness, and 

Softness. 58 

Deserts. 283 

Design.328 

Diamond. 122 

Disintegration.243 

Distilled Spirits. 30 

Domestic animals. 16 

Domestic utensils. 187 

Down. 176 

Dresden China. 184 

Drugget. 192 

Drugs. 139 

Ductility.202 

Dutch Reformed Church, 

N. Y..408 

Duties to Animals. 19 

Dyeing. 343 

Dye-stuffs. 

Earthquakes. 235 

Earth, the.11, 222 

Ebony. 1V4 

Ecclesiastic Architecture 406 
Edible Birds’-nests .... 353 

Eider-ducks. 177 

Elephant. 132 

Elephanta. 393 


Page. 

Elgin Marbles.160 

Ellora. 394 

Elm.305 

Enamel. 342 

Engrafting. 85 

Engraving. 56 

Ether. 353 

Etruscan vases. 186 

Evaporation. 58 

Excrescences. 290 

Explanation of Terms in 

Architecture. 8 

Explanation of Terms in 

Natural History. 7 

Experience. 223 

Extinct Species. 226 

Faculties. 57 

Fans. 114 

Famine. 20 

Farm. 145 

Feathers.129, 176 

Fermentation. 27 

Figs. 83, 279 

Figurative meaning of 

Bread. 28 

Fine Arts. 164 

Fire, uses of. 97 

Firearms. 351 

Fishes.17, 379 

Fishing. 24 

Flaxseed.107 

Flux. 104 

Food, different kinds... 16 

Forests. 273, 281 

Forks. 109 

Form of Birds.375 

Fossil Remains. 226 

Frankincense. 358 

Fresco. 341 

Fuller’s Earth. 241 

Fulton. 260 









































































412 


INDEX, 


Page. 


Furs . 

... 118 

Fusibility. 

... 202 

Fusion and Solution 

... 59 

Galileo. 

... 170 

Galleys. 

... 244 

Galls. 

... 290 

Gamboge. 

... 348 

Gardens. 

... 148 

Garden Fruits. 

... 150 

Geology. 

222 

German Silver. 

... 205 

Gilding. 

... 206 

Ginger. 

... 72 

Glass. 

... 167 

Glazing. 

... 242 

Glue. 

.. . 166 

Gnomon. 

... 197 

Gold. 

... 205 

Gothic Style. 

... 405 

Goths. 

... 157 

Grain and Bread ... 

... 25 

Granite. 

... 155 

Grapes. 

... 73 

Grass and Hay .... 


Grecian Dominion.. 


Group of Laocoon .. 

... 182 

Gum Arabic. 

,... 349 

Gunpowder. 

,... 350 

Gutta Percha. 

... 281 

Gypsum. 


Habit. 


Habits of Birds .... 


Hardware. 

.... 358 

Hats, their uses.... 


Hats and Bonnets .. 

, ... 114 

Hawthorn. 


Hazel. 


Hebrew, Greek, 

and 

Latin,. 



Hedge. 

Page. 
.. 174 

Hemp. 

.. 107 

Hemlock. 

.. 297 

Hessian flies. 


Herbivorous animals. 

.. 19 

Herculaneum. 

.. 179 

Herrings. 

.. 381 

Herschel. 

.. 171 

Hibernation. 

.. 373 

Hickory. 

.. 306 

Hieroglyphics. 

.. 324 

Honey. 

. . 67 

Horizon. 

.. 194 

Horology. 

.. 199 

Horticulture. 

.. 25 

Hour-glass. 


House Furniture .... 

.. 174 

Houses... 

.. 152 

House Flies. 

.. 384 

Human Food. 

.. 138 

Human Hand. 

.. 35 

Human Organs. 

.. 34 

Huuting. 

.. 23 

Hydrogen. 

.. 263 

Ice. 


Icebergs. 


Idleness. 

.. 226 

Ignorance. 

.. 224 

Illuminating. 


Illustrated Books ... 

.. 334 

India-Rubber. 


Indigo. 

.. 346 

Ink. 

324, 53 

Insects . 

.. 382 

Instruction. 


Intelligence. 

.. 34 

Intoxication—Effects 

. . 32 

Inundations. 


Iron.. 217, 201 

Isinglass. 

. . 353 

Ivy . 

.. 316 















































































INDEX 


413 


Japanning .... 

Page. 

Jelly. 

. 166 

Jet. 


Jungles. 

. 276 

Jupiter. 

. 159 

Kayaks. 


Kine and Cattle 

. 37 

Knives. 

. 189 

Laburnum .... 

.305 

Lac. 

.360 

Lamps. 

Landscape .... 

... 90,178 

. 329 

Language, our own.... 47 

Lantern of Demosthenes 396 

Lapidary. 

.121 

Larch. 

. 298 

Latent and Sensible Heat 95 

Laurel. 

. 300 

Lava. 

. 232 

Lawn. 

. 173 

Laws of the 

Twelve 

Tables. 

. 52 

Lead. 

.214 

Lead pencils .. 

.325 

Leather. 

. 115 

Leeches. 

. 354 

Lemons. 

. 77 

Letters.. 

. 322 

Lilac.. 

. 314 

Lily. 

.320 

Lime.. 

. 165 

Limes. 


Limestone .... 


Linden. 

. 312 

Liquorice. 


Lithography... 


Lithophytes.... 

. 388 

Lizards. 

. 370 

Locomotion ... 


Locusts. 

.. 385 


Page. 


Locust-tree.379 

Log Cabins. 300 

Logwood.377 

LordRosse. 171 

Lucifer Matches. 94 

Macaroni. 30 

Mace. 18 

Machines.103 

Mackerel. 328 

Madder. 346 

Magnolia.303 

Mahogany. 174, 279 

Mahometans. 168 

Malleability.280 

Malt. 31 

Mammalia. 18 

Mammoth. 226 

Man and Woman, the 

first. 14 

Man’s Dominion. 22 

Manufactures of Wool.. 99 

Maple. 313 

Marble. 155 

Marine Views.329 

Mariner’s Compass 221, 245 

Masons.407 

Mastic. 356 

Matter and Spirit. 57 

Mattresses. 176 

Mausoleums.401, 405 

Mechanic. 148 

Mechanics. 103 

Merchant. 148 

Merchant Ship. 256 

Metals. 201 

Metallurgy. 204 

Meteorology. 251 

Mexican Ware. 185 

Microscope. 171 

Migration.874 

Milk. 39 


35 * 













































































414 


INDEX, 


Page. 


Mills.... 26 

Mineralogy .203 

Minerals. 37 

Mineral Springs. 139 

Minerva. 160 

Mirrors.169 

Models.157 

Modern Italians. 158 

Molasses. 62 

Molluscs. 364 

Mortar. 166 

Mosaics. 331 

Mosque of St. Sophia.. 406 

Mountain Ash.314 

Movement of the globe. 12 

Mustard. 52 

Myrrh.357 

Narcotics. 140 

Natron. 361 

Nature and Art. 163 

Nautical Almanac. 251 

Nautical Instruments .. 250 

Navigation. 250 

Navy. 252 

Needles. 109 

Nests of Birds.378 

Newspapers. 50 

Night and Sleep. 13 

Nitre.350 

Nutmeg. 72 

Nuts. 87 

Nymphea. 321 

Oak. 284, 285 

Oasis. 283 

Obelisk of Luxor. 162 

Obelisks—in Rome.... 161 

Observation. 224 

Ocean. 266 

Oil-cloth. 192 

Oil-painting. 333 


Old Masters. 

Page, 
... 334 

Olives. 

... 89 

Olive Oil. 

... 41 

Opium.... 

... 140 

Optical Glasses .... 

... 170 

Optics. ..... 

... 328 

Oranges . 

... 77 

Organization. 

... 34 

Organs of Plants... 

,... 35 

Oriental Languages 

... 183 

Ostrich. 

.... 129 

Orang Outang. 

... 274 

Oxalic Acid. 

... 359 

Oxygen. 

,... 263 

Pagodas . 

.... 394 

Painting. 

... 326 

Pampas. 

, ... 283 

Pantheon . 

... 400 

Paper, and its uses . 

,... 47 

Paradise. 

... 149 

Parchment.. 

.... 47 

Parian Marble. 

... 159 

Parthenon. 

160, 400 

Particles and Pores, 

. ... 59 

Pasturage. 

,... 23 

Peaches.... 

,... 88 

Pearls.. 

.... 125 

Pens. 

.... 53 

Pepper___ ....., 

.... 71 

Perfumes. 

, ... 145 

Perpetuity. 

... 231 

Perspective.. 

. ... 328 

Petroleum. 

.... 392 

Pewter. 


Pharmacy. 

... 391 

Phidias 


Phosphorus.. 


Pictures...... 

... 326 

Pineapples.. 

.... 79 

Pines. 


Pins. 














































































INDEX 


415 


Page. 


Pipes. 144 

Pirates. 254 

Pitch.296 

Pictorial Instruction ... 834 

Planets. 14 

Plantations. 104 

Plane-tree. 130 

Plaster Casts. 163 

Plating. 188 

Platinum.202 

Plums. 88 

Points of the Compass . 195 

Pole Star.248 

Polypi... 387 

Pomegranates. 84 


Porcelain. 183, 241 

Porphyry. 161 

Portraits. 326 

Potato. 278 

Potatoes. 29 

Pottery-ware. 183 

Poultry. 17 

.. 147 

Prairies. 283 

Praxiteles. 160 

Precious Stones. 121 

Predaceous Animals ... 19 

Primary, Secondary, and 
Tertiary formations.. 239 

Printing. 48 

. .324 

Printing-press. 49 

Producers and Consumers 22 

Prunes. 83 

Public Edifices. 153 

Public, the. 44 

Public schools. 43 

Public Thanksgiving... 25 

Pyramids .......*..... 391 

Quartz. 242 



Page. 

Quicksilver. 

. 210 

Quills. 


Quinces. 

. 88 

Rail Cars. 

. 260 

Raisins. 

. 83 

Raspberries. 

. 89 

Reading and Writing, 43, 323 

Remains of Antiquity. 

. 179 

Rennet. 


Reptiles. 


Resin. 

. 296 

Respiration, Lungs and 

organs. 

. 15 

Rhinoceros. 

. 275 

Rice. 

. 36 

Rivers. 

. 269 

Roman Baths. 

. 403 

Roses. 

. 317 

Rosewood. 

. 174 

%e. 

. 30 

Saffron. 

. 73 

Salmon.. 

. 381 

Salsette.. 

. 394 

Saltpetre. 

. 350 

Salts. 

. 137 

Sand.. 

241 

Sandal-wood. 

, 356 

Sandstone. 

. 243 

Schools of Art. 

. 336 

Sealing-wax. 

. 324 

Seals. 

124 

Sea-water. 

, 267 

Senses . 

57 

Sevres China. 

184 

Sewer. 

215 

Sewing Materials. 

119 

Sharks. 

380 

Shells . 

364 

Sherbet . 

78 

Ships. 

245 













































































416 


INDEX, 


Page. 


Silk—Silk-worm.110 

Silver. 200 

Slate-stone. 178 

Snowball.315 

Snuff. 143 

Soap. 136 

Solar Microscope. 171 

Solids, fluids, and gases 58 
Solomon’s good woman. 106 
Solution and Crystals.. 60 

Spawn. 381 

Specific Gravity.219 

Spectacles.171 

Spermaceti. 91 

Spices. 69 

Spiders. 386 

Spirits of Turpentine 295,362 

Sponge. 138 

Spontaneous combustion 94 

Spoons. 188 

Springs. 268 

Spruce.297 

Starch. 27 

Statues. 156 

Steam. 264 

Steamships.259 

Steel.220 

Steppes.283 

Stimulants. 141 

Stork. 379 

St. Peter’s Church.403 

Strawberries.87, 317 

Sugar and Sugar-cane . 63 

Sumach.319 

Summer and Winter 

Solstices. 195 

Sun-dial. 196 

Sun, Moon, and Stars .. 12 

Table-salt. 69 

Tamarinds. 84 

Tanning. 115 


PA6« 


Tapestry ,., ., . ... 119 

Tar. .. .... .. 296 

Tartaric Afta . .. 356 

Taxes.. . .. 44 

Tea. 60 

Teak-tree. 274, 274 

Teasel. 106 

Telescopes. 176 

Temperance and Glut¬ 
tony . 20 

Temple of Juggernaut. 394 

Tenacity. 202 

Tents. 390 

The Elements.230 

The Magnet. 221, 245 

The Mediterranean 249, 268 

The Meridian. 194 

The Vintage. 75 

The Whale. 91 

Time-pieces. 193 

Tin.216 

Tobacco. 142 

Tombs—Prison, N. Y... 408 

Tortoise. 135 

Transformation of In¬ 


sects . Ill 

Translation. 47 

Trinity Church, N. Y... 408 

Tulip-tree.304 

Turks. 158 

Turmeric.72, 346 

Turpentine. 295 

Tyrian Purple.344 


Useful Arts. 164 

Useful Insects. 386 

Uses of Birds. 377 


Varieties of the Human 


Pace. 14 

Varnish. 358 

Vases. 185 


































































INDEX. 417 


Page. 


Vatican. 182 

Vegetable food. 19 

Vegetable Mould. 229 

Venomous Reptiles.... 373 

Vermilion. \ .211 

Victory. 253 

Vikings. 255 

Vision. 

Volcanoes.232 

Vulture.378 

Wafers. 324 

Walrus. 134 

Water. 268 

Water-colors. 342 

Wax. 91 


Page. 


Wedgewooa. ware. 184 

White Lead. 214 

Wigwams. 389 

Wild Animals, Game .. 16 

Willow. 283, 310 

Wine. 73 

Wooden Clocks.200 

Xanthian Marbles.160 

Year. 1-94 

Zinc. 214 

Zoology. 389 

Zoophytes. 388 



























* 

/ 

. , . 4 * 



























M 

* 














\ 


f 





r 



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